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Updated: May 18, 2026

Problem-Solving Before Instruction (PS-I): A Protocol for Assessment and Intervention in Students with Different Abilities
Published on: September 11, 2021
Systems and cascades in cognitive development and academic achievement
Marc H Bornstein1, Chun-Shin Hahn, Dieter Wolke
1Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. Marc_H_Bornstein@nih.gov
None:
A large-scale (N = 552) controlled multivariate prospective 14-year longitudinal study of a developmental cascade embedded in a developmental system showed that information-processing efficiency in infancy (4 months), general mental development in toddlerhood (18 months), behavior difficulties in early childhood (36 months), psychometric intelligence in middle childhood (8 years), and maternal education either directly or indirectly (or both) contribute to academic achievement in adolescence (14 years).
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