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Sublimation

Sublimation

Sublimation is the direct transformation of a solid to a gaseous state. For instance, at standard pressure and room temperature, solid carbon dioxide sublimes to gaseous carbon dioxide. The phase diagram depicts the conditions required for sublimation. This process occurs at the solid-gas phase boundary and is not observed above the triple point of the substance. The reverse of sublimation is called deposition, where a gaseous substance condenses directly into a solid. Sublimation and...

Distillation: Vapor–Liquid Equilibria

Distillation: Vapor–Liquid Equilibria

Distillation is a separation technique that takes advantage of the boiling point properties of disparate elements in a mixture. To perform distillation, we begin by heating a miscible mixture of two liquids with a significant difference in boiling points (at least 20°C). As the solution heats up and reaches the bubble point of the more volatile component, some molecules of the more volatile component transition into the gas phase and travel upward into the condenser, which is a glass tube with...

Solid–Solid Solutions

Solid–Solid Solutions

The temperature-composition phase diagram of two solids, A and B, which are immiscible in the solid phase but form miscible liquids, shows that when the temperature is low, these two exist as separate, pure solids (A and B). As the temperature increases, they transition into a single-phase liquid solution where A and B coexist. Moving from point a1 to a2 in the phase diagram, the composition changes such that solid B begins to separate from the solution, enriching the remaining liquid with A.

Two Components: Liquid–Liquid Systems

Two Components: Liquid–Liquid Systems

A pressure-composition phase diagram explicitly describes the behavior of an ideal solution of two volatile liquids under varying pressures and compositions. A pressure-composition diagram has two main curves. The bubble point curve represents the plot of pressure versus liquid mole fraction. It indicates the pressure at which the first bubble of vapor forms from the liquid phase as the system pressure decreases.The dew point curve is the pressure versus vapor mole fraction. It indicates the...

Phase Transitions

Phase Transitions

Whether solid, liquid, or gas, a substance's state depends on the order and arrangement of its particles (atoms, molecules, or ions). Particles in the solid pack closely together, generally in a pattern. The particles vibrate about their fixed positions but do not move or squeeze past their neighbors. In liquids, although the particles are closely spaced, they are randomly arranged. The position of the particles are not fixed—that is, they are free to move past their neighbors to occupy...

Phase Transitions: Sublimation and Deposition

Phase Transitions: Sublimation and Deposition

Some solids can transition directly into the gaseous state, bypassing the liquid state, via a process known as sublimation. At room temperature and standard pressure, a piece of dry ice (solid CO2) sublimes, appearing to gradually disappear without ever forming any liquid. Snow and ice sublimate at temperatures below the melting point of water, a slow process that may be accelerated by winds and the reduced atmospheric pressures at high altitudes. When solid iodine is warmed, the solid sublimes...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: May 18, 2026

Fast Pyrolysis of Biomass Residues in a Twin-screw Mixing Reactor

Fast Pyrolysis of Biomass Residues in a Twin-screw Mixing Reactor

Published on: September 9, 2016

Formation of liquid and solid products from liquid phase pyrolysis.

N Schwaiger¹, V Witek, R Feiner

¹Institute of Chemical Engineering, Graz University of Technology, Graz, Austria. nikolaus.schwaiger@tugraz.at

Bioresource Technology

|September 20, 2012

Summary

Liquid phase pyrolysis enhances the carbon-to-oxygen ratio in biomass by preserving lignin structure. This process liquefies lignocellulosic feed, preparing it for further upgrading steps like hydrogenation.

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Last Updated: May 18, 2026

Fast Pyrolysis of Biomass Residues in a Twin-screw Mixing Reactor

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Biomass Conversion to Produce Hydrocarbon Liquid Fuel Via Hot-vapor Filtered Fast Pyrolysis and Catalytic Hydrotreating

Biomass Conversion to Produce Hydrocarbon Liquid Fuel Via Hot-vapor Filtered Fast Pyrolysis and Catalytic Hydrotreating

Published on: December 25, 2016

Area of Science:

Biomass conversion
Thermochemical processing
Lignocellulosic chemistry

Background:

Improving the carbon-to-oxygen (C:O) ratio in biomass is crucial for efficient biofuel production.
Lignocellulosic biomass presents challenges due to its complex structure, particularly the lignin component.
Existing pyrolysis methods often degrade lignin, limiting C:O ratio improvement.

Purpose of the Study:

To enhance the C:O ratio in biomass through liquid phase pyrolysis.
To preserve the lignin macrostructure during the liquefaction of lignocellulosic feed.
To prepare biomass for subsequent upgrading processes such as hydrogenation and deoxygenation.

Main Methods:

Liquid phase pyrolysis was conducted using a non-aqueous liquid phase heat carrier.
The process was performed in a semi-batch reactor under isothermal conditions at 350°C.
Rapid quenching was employed to halt reactions and study solid intermediate formation, enabling observation of liquid and solid product generation.

Main Results:

Infrared spectroscopy and elemental analysis were used to analyze biomass transformation into biochar.
A stable lignin structure was confirmed throughout the entire process.
The lignin framework in wood remained largely intact, while carbohydrates were significantly pyrolyzed at 350°C.

Conclusions:

Liquid phase pyrolysis at 350°C effectively preserves the lignin macrostructure in lignocellulosic biomass.
This method facilitates the liquefaction of biomass and improves its C:O ratio.
The preserved lignin structure is advantageous for subsequent upgrading steps, leading to more efficient biofuel production.