The role of visual cues in movement control and motor memory

3 groups of 12 Ss performed an index finger letter-writing task with visual information but without kinesthetic cues (+V-K), followed immediately by repeating the same letters without vision (-V-K). All groups performed 6 test trials of + V-K, then -V-K writing. Group 1 had no experience with the task prior to the test trials, Group 2 practiced the letters without vision with kinesthetic cues (-V+K), while Group 3 had visual and kinesthetic practice (+V+K). Visual cues efficiently guided performance in the absence of kinesthesis, and visual memory traces had a marked reinforcing effect. Further, learned reliance on kinesthetic cues was present even in +V-K performance, but reliance on visual cues did not develop.