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Updated: Apr 5, 2026

Problem-Solving Before Instruction PS-I: A Protocol for Assessment and Intervention in Students with Different Abilities
Published on: September 11, 2021
Instruction and cognition.
Jennifer G Cromley1, James P Byrnes1
1Department of Psychological Studies in Education, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, USA.
Cognitive science research offers effective teaching strategies like spaced learning and quizzing. Applying these evidence-based methods can enhance student learning outcomes in K-12 classrooms.
Area of Science:
- Cognitive Science
- Educational Psychology
Background:
- Effective instruction aligns with cognitive principles for optimal student learning.
- Contemporary K-12 classrooms face constraints impacting instructional design.
Purpose of the Study:
- To review "second wave" cognitive science research relevant to K-12 instruction.
- To contextualize research findings within practical classroom environments.
- To advocate for integrating cognitive science principles into teaching.
Main Methods:
- Review of "second wave" cognitive science research, including spaced learning, worked examples, and quizzing.
- Analysis structured by a US Department of Education Practice Guide.
- Contextualization within the K-12 educational setting.
Main Results:
- Identified key cognitive science principles: spaced learning, worked examples, dual coding, concrete representations, quizzing, delayed judgment of learning, and explanatory reasoning.
- Highlighted the importance of aligning instructional methods with cognitive processing.
- Acknowledged practical constraints faced by teachers and administrators.
Conclusions:
- Emphasized the need for educators to utilize evidence-based cognitive science strategies.
- Recommended continued integration of cognitive science findings into teacher training and practice.
- Called for further research into motivational factors influencing the adoption of effortful learning principles.

