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The Cochlea

The Cochlea

The cochlea is a coiled structure in the inner ear that contains hair cells—the sensory receptors of the auditory system. Sound waves are transmitted to the cochlea by small bones attached to the eardrum called the ossicles, which vibrate the oval window that leads to the inner ear. This causes fluid in the chambers of the cochlea to move, vibrating the basilar membrane.

Auditory Pathway

Auditory Pathway

Auditory pathways constitute the complex neural circuits responsible for transmitting and interpreting auditory information from the peripheral auditory system to the brain. Sound waves are initially captured by the outer ear, funneled through the ear canal, and reach the tympanic membrane (eardrum). These vibrations are transmitted via the middle ear's ossicles to the inner ear's cochlea.
When viewed cross-sectionally, the cochlea reveals the scala vestibuli and scala tympani flanking...

Hearing

Hearing

When we hear a sound, our nervous system is detecting sound waves—pressure waves of mechanical energy traveling through a medium. The frequency of the wave is perceived as pitch, while the amplitude is perceived as loudness.

Perceiving Loudness, Pitch, and Location

Perceiving Loudness, Pitch, and Location

The human brain perceives pitch through two primary mechanisms reflected in place theory and frequency theory. Each mechanism describes how sound waves are interpreted as specific pitches by the brain, offering insights into the intricate processes of auditory perception.
Place theory, or place coding, suggests that different pitches are heard because various sound waves activate specific locations along the cochlea's basilar membrane. The brain determines the pitch of a sound by...

Auditory Perception

Auditory Perception

The auditory system is essential for sound perception, utilizing various critical structures. When sound waves enter the outer ear, they travel through the ear canal and cause the eardrum to vibrate. These vibrations are then transmitted to the middle ear, where three tiny bones – the malleus, incus, and stapes – amplify the sound. This amplification is crucial, as it ensures that the sound vibrations are strong enough to be conveyed to the inner ear. These vibrations then reach the...

Hair Cells

Hair Cells

Hair cells are the sensory receptors of the auditory system—they transduce mechanical sound waves into electrical energy that the nervous system can understand. Hair cells are located in the organ of Corti within the cochlea of the inner ear, between the basilar and tectorial membranes. The actual sensory receptors are called inner hair cells. The outer hair cells serve other functions, such as sound amplification in the cochlea, and are not discussed in detail here.

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Mar 31, 2026

A Method to Study Adaptation to Left-Right Reversed Audition

A Method to Study Adaptation to Left-Right Reversed Audition

Published on: October 29, 2018

Tuning to Binaural Cues in Human Auditory Cortex.

Susan A McLaughlin, Nathan C Higgins, G Christopher Stecker

Journal of the Association for Research in Otolaryngology : JARO

|October 16, 2015

Summary

This study reveals how the human auditory cortex processes sound localization cues. While interaural level differences (ILD) show clear contralateral bias, interaural time differences (ITD) coding is more complex and hemisphere-dependent.

Area of Science:

Neuroscience
Auditory Neuroscience
Human Neuroimaging

Background:

Binaural cues, interaural level differences (ILD) and interaural time differences (ITD), are crucial for sound localization.
Mammalian auditory neurons typically show contralateral bias in response to these cues.
Previous human neuroimaging studies have yielded inconsistent findings regarding contralateral bias in binaural processing.

Purpose of the Study:

To parametrically investigate interaural level difference (ILD) and interaural time difference (ITD) tuning in the human auditory cortex (AC).
To compare the neural representation of ILD and ITD across both cerebral hemispheres.
To evaluate the integration of basic ILD and ITD processing within the human AC.

Main Methods:

Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) was employed to measure neural responses.

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Functional Imaging of Auditory Cortex in Adult Cats using High-field fMRI

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Univariate and multivoxel analyses were used to assess ILD and ITD tuning.

Parametric modulation of ILD and ITD values allowed for detailed response function characterization.

Main Results:

Contralateral ILD tuning was consistently observed in the posterior superior temporal gyrus (pSTG) of both hemispheres, with U-shaped response functions.
Univariate analysis revealed modest, monotonic contralateral ITD tuning in the left pSTG only.
Multivoxel classification identified ITD coding in both hemispheres, despite differing univariate patterns.
While ILD and ITD processing occurred in similar AC regions, their distinct response characteristics suggest incomplete integration.

Conclusions:

Human AC exhibits contralateral bias for ILD processing, supporting opponent-channel models.
ITD coding in human AC appears more complex, potentially involving multiple, hemisphere-specific representations.
Basic ILD and ITD processing mechanisms may not be fully integrated within the human auditory cortex.