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Vision

Vision

Vision is the result of light being detected and transduced into neural signals by the retina of the eye. This information is then further analyzed and interpreted by the brain. First, light enters the front of the eye and is focused by the cornea and lens onto the retina—a thin sheet of neural tissue lining the back of the eye. Because of refraction through the convex lens of the eye, images are projected onto the retina upside-down and reversed.

Motor and Sensory Areas of the Cortex

Motor and Sensory Areas of the Cortex

The cerebral cortex, the brain's outermost layer, is pivotal in processing complex cognitive tasks, emotions, and various sensory inputs and executing voluntary motor activities. This intricate structure is divided into three primary functional areas: the motor areas, sensory areas, and association areas.
Motor Areas
The motor areas located in the frontal lobe are central to controlling voluntary movements. This region is further subdivided into the primary motor cortex and the premotor cortex....

Somatosensory, Motor, and Association Cortex

Somatosensory, Motor, and Association Cortex

The somatosensory cortex in the parietal lobes is crucial for interpreting sensory data such as touch, temperature, and proprioception. The somatosensory cortex, situated in the parietal lobes, plays a vital role in interpreting sensory information like touch, temperature, and proprioception—awareness of body position. This specialized brain region features an organized structure wherein neurons at the top primarily process sensations originating from the lower body. In contrast, those at...

Visual System

Visual System

Light enters the eye through the cornea, a transparent, dome-shaped surface covering the surface of the eyeball that helps to direct and focus incoming light. This light is then channeled toward the pupil, an adjustable opening whose size is controlled by the iris. The iris, a pigmented muscle, regulates the amount of light entering the eye by contracting or dilating the pupil, thereby ensuring optimal light levels for clear vision.
Once through the pupil, the light passes through the lens, a...

Association Areas of the Cortex

Association Areas of the Cortex

Association areas are regions of the cerebral cortex that do not have a specific sensory or motor function. Instead, they integrate and interpret information from various sources to enable higher cognitive processes such as memory, learning, and decision-making. Some key association areas include the following:
Prefrontal Association Area: This area is located in the frontal lobe and is involved in planning, decision-making, and moderating social behavior. It connects with primary motor areas,...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Mar 25, 2026

A Large Lateral Craniotomy Procedure for Mesoscale Wide-field Optical Imaging of Brain Activity

A Large Lateral Craniotomy Procedure for Mesoscale Wide-field Optical Imaging of Brain Activity

Published on: May 7, 2017

An excitatory basis for divisive normalization in visual cortex.

Tatsuo K Sato¹, Bilal Haider¹, Michael Häusser²

¹UCL Institute of Ophthalmology, University College London, London, UK.

Nature Neuroscience

|February 16, 2016

Summary

This summary is machine-generated.

Divisive normalization in the visual cortex, crucial for neural processing, is surprisingly driven by decreased excitatory synapses, not increased inhibition. This finding challenges long-held assumptions about neural circuit function.

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Area of Science:

Neuroscience
Computational Neuroscience
Visual System Research

Background:

Neurons in the visual cortex exhibit both local and distal connections.
Distal networks involve excitatory and inhibitory synapses, leading to divisive normalization.
Normalization is traditionally attributed to increased synaptic inhibition.

Purpose of the Study:

To investigate the synaptic mechanisms underlying divisive normalization in the visual cortex.
To challenge the prevailing hypothesis that normalization results from increased inhibition.

Main Methods:

Utilized optogenetic stimulation in mouse visual cortex.
Performed intracellular recordings to monitor neuronal activity.
Combined optogenetics with electrophysiology for precise circuit interrogation.

Main Results:

Demonstrated that normalization is mediated by a decrease in synaptic excitation.
Contradicted the established theory linking normalization to increased inhibition.
Provided direct evidence for the role of excitatory synaptic changes.

Conclusions:

Synaptic excitation, not inhibition, is the primary driver of divisive normalization in the visual cortex.
This finding necessitates a revision of current models of visual information processing.
Highlights the complex interplay of synaptic mechanisms in neural computation.