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Lift is a fundamental aerodynamic force that acts perpendicular to the direction of airflow. It plays a central role in achieving and sustaining flight and in stabilizing various vehicles. Lift primarily originates from pressure differences created across surfaces, such as an airfoil. A lower pressure region forms above the wing, while a higher pressure region forms below it, generating an upward force. This differential results from the shape and orientation of the airfoil, enabling the wing...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Mar 18, 2026

Experimental Investigation of the Flow Structure over a Delta Wing Via Flow Visualization Methods

Experimental Investigation of the Flow Structure over a Delta Wing Via Flow Visualization Methods

Published on: April 23, 2018

Optimal flapping wing for maximum vertical aerodynamic force in hover: twisted or flat?

Hoang Vu Phan¹, Quang Tri Truong, Thi Kim Loan Au

¹Artificial Muscle Research Center, Konkuk University, Seoul 143-701, Korea. Department of Advanced Technology Fusion, Konkuk University, Seoul 143-701, Korea.

Bioinspiration & Biomimetics

|July 9, 2016

Summary

This study on flapping wings found that negative twist reduces vertical force and increases power consumption. However, positive twist offers comparable performance to flat wings for hovering micro air vehicles.

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Area of Science:

Aerospace Engineering
Fluid Dynamics
Biomechanics

Background:

Flapping-wing micro air vehicles (MAVs) are inspired by insect flight.
Understanding wing aerodynamics, particularly the effect of twist, is crucial for MAV design.
Optimizing wing design can enhance MAV efficiency and performance.

Purpose of the Study:

To investigate the aerodynamic effects of wing twist on hovering flapping wings.
To quantify the impact of negative (wash-out) and positive (wash-in) twist on aerodynamic forces and power consumption.
To compare the performance of twisted wings against flat wings for MAV applications.

Main Methods:

Utilized unsteady blade element theory for aerodynamic analysis.
Developed a flapping-wing system with large flapping amplitude motion.
Measured and analyzed the 3D kinematics of a passively twisted wing with variable angle of attack (AoA).

Main Results:

Negatively twisted wings produced 10-20% less vertical force for the same power, or required 1-6% more power for the same vertical force compared to flat wings.
Positively twisted wings showed nearly identical vertical aerodynamic force and power consumption to maximum-force-producing flat wings under hovering conditions.
The power loading of positively twisted wings was only ~2% higher than that of the optimal flat wing.

Conclusions:

Wing twist significantly influences aerodynamic performance in hovering flapping wings.
Flat wings with optimized kinematics (wing rotation) are efficient and simple candidates for hovering MAVs.
Positive twist (wash-in) does not offer significant advantages over optimized flat wings for hovering MAVs.