Impact of Neuroscience and Evolving Standards of Decency on Juvenile Sentencing

A revisionist approach to Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development has brought new insights that challenge and reinterpret his established ideas. Piaget proposed that the formal operational stage, emerging in adolescence, represents the culmination of cognitive maturity. During this stage, individuals are said to develop abstract thinking, engage in systematic problem-solving, and show a form of egocentrism, believing others are as preoccupied with their behavior as they are...

Conduct disorder is a complex mental health diagnosis characterized by a repetitive and persistent pattern of behavior that violates societal norms, the rights of others, or age-appropriate rules. The diagnostic criteria for conduct disorder require the presence of at least three problematic behaviors within the past 12 months, with at least one occurring in the past six months. These behaviors are grouped into four categories: aggression toward people and animals; destruction of property;...

In operant conditioning, the timing of reinforcement is crucial. For animals like rats and cats, immediate reinforcement (within a few seconds) is much more effective than delayed reinforcement. For example, a food reward for a rat needs to follow within 30 seconds of pressing a bar to be effective. 
Humans, however, can respond to delayed reinforcers. We often make decisions between immediate small rewards and delayed larger rewards. This ability to delay gratification is a significant...

Drugs affecting neurotransmitter synthesis can impact the adrenergic neuron and the synthesis of neurotransmitters. For example, α-methyltyrosine and carbidopa target specific enzymes involved in catecholamine synthesis. α-methyltyrosine inhibits the enzyme tyrosine hydroxylase, which converts tyrosine into dopamine. By blocking this enzyme, α-methyltyrosine reduces dopamine production and other catecholamines. Carbidopa, on the other hand, inhibits the enzyme dopa decarboxylase,...

The famous and controversial Stanford Prison Experiment, conducted by social psychologist Philip Zimbardo and his colleagues at Stanford University, demonstrated the power of social roles, social norms, and scripts.

Certain drugs can affect how neurotransmitters called catecholamines, are released or taken back up in the adrenergic neuron. They can have different effects on the body's sympathetic transmission. Reserpine, a natural compound found in the Rauwolfia shrub, blocks a transporter called vesicular monoamine transporter (VMAT), which leads to a buildup of catecholamines in the cell and reduces sympathetic transmission. Another drug called guanethidine works in multiple ways, including blocking...