Carotenoids biosynthesis and cleavage related genes from bacteria to plants

Carotenoids are essential for photosynthesis and photoprotection in photosynthetic organisms and beneficial for human health. Apocarotenoids derived from carotenoid degradation can serve critical functions including hormones, volatiles, and signals. They have been used commercially as food colorants, animal feed supplements, and nutraceuticals for cosmetic and pharmaceutical purposes. This review focuses on the molecular evolution of carotenogenic enzymes and carotenoid cleavage oxygenases (CCOs) from bacteria, fungi, cyanobacteria, algae, and plants. The diversity of carotenoids and apocarotenoids as well as their complicated biosynthetic pathway in different species can shed light on the history of early molecular evolution. Some carotenogenic genes (such as phytoene synthases) have high protein sequence similarity from bacteria to land plants, but some (such as phytoene desaturases, lycopene cyclases, carotenoid hydroxylases, and CCOs) have low similarity. The broad diversity of apocarotenoid volatile compounds can be attributed to large numbers of carotenoid precursors and the various cleavage sites catalyzed by CCOs enzymes. A variety of carotenogenic enzymes and CCOs indicate the functional diversification of carotenoids and apocrotenoids in different species. New carotenoids, new apocarotenoids, new carotenogenic enzymes, new CCOs, and new pathways still need to be explored.