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Related Concept Videos

ATP Driven Pumps II: P-type Pumps01:34

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The P-type pumps are a large family of integral membrane transporter ATPases. They are divided into five major types based on substrate specificity, from I to V.
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ATP Driven Pumps III: V-type Pumps01:30

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V-type pumps are ATP-driven pumps found in the vacuolar membranes of plants, yeast, endosomal and lysosomal membranes of animal cells, plasma membranes of a few specialized eukaryotic cells, and some prokaryotes. They are also known as the V1Vo-ATPase, that couple ATP hydrolysis to transport protons against a concentration gradient.
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ATP Driven Pumps I: An Overview01:27

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ATP-driven pumps, also known as transport ATPases, are integral membrane proteins. They have binding sites for ATP located on the membrane's cytosolic side and the ion-conducting domain in the transmembrane region. These pumps use the free energy released from ATP hydrolysis to move the solutes across cell membranes against an electrochemical gradient.
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Concrete in large quantities can be pumped across long distances for placing in inaccessible sites. This system comprises a hopper that receives concrete from a mixer, a pump to propel the concrete, and pipelines that facilitate its delivery.
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Refrigerators or heat pumps are heat engines operating in a reverse direction. For a refrigerator, the focus is on removing heat from a specific area, whereas, for a heat pump, the focus is on dumping heat into one particular area. A refrigerator (or heat pump) absorbs heat Qc from the cold reservoir at Kelvin temperature Tc and discards heat Qh to the hot reservoir at Kelvin temperature Th, while work W is done on the engine’s working substance.
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Roles of Electrolytes: Chloride and Bicarbonate01:29

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Chloride ions contribute to the osmotic pressure gradient distinguishing the intracellular fluid (ICF) from the extracellular fluid (ECF). They counterbalance positively charged ions in the ECF and ensure its electrochemical stability. The renal system's process of chloride absorption and release generally mirrors that of sodium ions.
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Microbial Halorhodopsins: Light-Driven Chloride Pumps.

Christopher Engelhard1, Igor Chizhov2, Friedrich Siebert3

  • 1Fachbereich Physik , Freie Universität Berlin , 14195 Berlin , Germany.

Chemical Reviews
|June 9, 2018
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Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

Microbial rhodopsins, like halorhodopsins, function as ion pumps and sensors. Halorhodopsins are crucial optogenetic tools for neuronal silencing due to their ion transport capabilities.

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Area of Science:

  • Microbiology
  • Optogenetics
  • Structural Biology

Background:

  • Microbial rhodopsins in Halobacterium salinarum exhibit diverse functions, including ion transport and phototaxis.
  • Halorhodopsins, proton and chloride pumps, are found across various species, with Natronomonas pharaonis halorhodopsin being extensively studied.
  • Distinct chloride-transporting rhodopsins are also identified in organisms like Flavobacteria and Cyanobacteria.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To describe the functional and structural characteristics of halorhodopsins.
  • To discuss halorhodopsin mechanisms in the context of ion pumps and sensors.
  • To review the biophysical and biochemical aspects of halorhodopsins as neuronal silencers.

Main Methods:

  • Structural analysis of microbial rhodopsins.
  • Functional characterization of halorhodopsins.
  • Biophysical and biochemical assays.

Main Results:

  • Halorhodopsins serve as a structural template for ion transport and phototaxis.
  • Natronomonas pharaonis halorhodopsin is a well-characterized neural silencer for optogenetics.
  • Halorhodopsins share common mechanistic principles with other ion pumps and sensors.

Conclusions:

  • Halorhodopsins are versatile proteins with significant applications in optogenetics.
  • Understanding halorhodopsin structure-function relationships is key to advancing neuronal silencing technologies.
  • This review consolidates current knowledge on halorhodopsins' biophysical and biochemical properties for optogenetic applications.