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During most eukaryotic translation processes, the small 40S ribosome subunit scans an mRNA from its 5' end until it encounters the first start AUG codon. The large 60S ribosomal subunit then joins the smaller one to initiate protein synthesis. The location of the translation initiation is largely determined by the nucleotides near the start codon as there may be multiple translation initiation sites present on the mRNA.  Marilyn Kozak discovered that the sequence RCCAUGG (where R...
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The universe is composed of matter in different forms, and all forms of matter contain energy.  The different forms of energy on Earth originate from the Sun — the ultimate energy source. Plants capture light energy from the Sun, and, via the process of photosynthesis, convert it into chemical energy. This stored energy from plants can be harnessed in many ways. For example, eating plant products as food provides energy for our body to function, and burning wood or coal (fossilized...
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Free energy—abbreviated as G for the scientist Gibbs who discovered it—is a measurement of useful energy that can be extracted from a reaction to do work. It is the energy in a chemical reaction that is available after entropy is accounted for. Reactions that take in energy are considered endergonic and reactions that release energy are exergonic. Plants carry out endergonic reactions by taking in sunlight and carbon dioxide to produce glucose and oxygen. Animals, in turn, break...
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The energy stored by a structure and location of matter in space is called potential energy. For instance, raising a kettlebell changes its spatial location and increases its potential energy. Similarly, a stretched rubber band contains potential energy which, under certain conditions, can be converted into other forms of energy, such as kinetic energy.
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Single-Scan Dual-Energy CT Using Primary Modulation.

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    Primary beam modulation dual-energy CT (PM-DECT) enables single-scan DECT on conventional scanners. This hardware method achieves high spatial resolution and accurate material decomposition, expanding DECT

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    Area of Science:

    • Medical Imaging Physics
    • Computed Tomography Technology

    Background:

    • Dual-energy CT (DECT) offers superior material differentiation over conventional CT.
    • Current DECT requires specialized scanners and dual-energy acquisition, limiting its clinical use.
    • There is a need for DECT implementation on conventional CT scanners.

    Purpose of the Study:

    • To introduce a hardware-based method, primary beam modulation DECT (PM-DECT), for single-scan DECT on conventional CT scanners.
    • To evaluate the performance of PM-DECT in terms of spatial resolution, accuracy, and error compared to conventional and two-scan DECT.

    Main Methods:

    • PM-DECT utilizes a patterned attenuation sheet (primary beam modulator) to selectively harden the X-ray beam during a single scan.
    • This allows simultaneous acquisition of high and low energy data at each projection angle.
    • Joint reconstruction of high/low energy CT images and material decomposition using an iterative algorithm with gradient weighting and similarity-based regularization.

    Main Results:

    • PM-DECT demonstrated high spatial resolution comparable to conventional CT scans.
    • Electron density calculations showed a limited error of 1.12% for PM-DECT.
    • Image reconstruction from sparse data resulted in only 0.66% error compared to two-scan DECT.

    Conclusions:

    • PM-DECT enables high-quality single-scan DECT on conventional CT scanners with minimal hardware modification.
    • This technology has the potential to significantly increase the clinical availability and implementation of DECT.
    • PM-DECT overcomes limitations of specialized scanners, making advanced material differentiation more accessible.