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Related Concept Videos

Tonicity in Animals00:59

Tonicity in Animals

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The tonicity of a solution determines if a cell gains or loses water in that solution. The tonicity depends on the permeability of the cell membrane for different solutes and the concentration of nonpenetrating solutes in the solution within and outside of the cell. If a semipermeable membrane hinders the passage of some solutes but allows water to follow its concentration gradient, water moves from the side with low osmolarity (i.e., less solute) to the side with higher osmolarity (i.e.,...
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Tonicity in Animals01:16

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Tonicity describes the amount of solute in a solution. The measure of the tonicity of a solution, or the total amount of solutes dissolved in a specific amount of solution, is called its osmolarity. Three terms—hypotonic, isotonic, and hypertonic—are used to relate the osmolarity of a cell to the osmolarity of the extracellular fluid that contains the cells. In a hypotonic solution, such as tap water, the extracellular fluid has a lower concentration of solutes than the fluid inside...
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Animal Mitochondrial Genetics02:59

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Among all the organelles in an animal cell, only mitochondria have their own independent genomes. Animal mitochondrial DNA is a double-stranded, closed-circular molecule with around 20,000 base pairs. Mitochondrial DNA is unique in that one of its two strands, the heavy, or H, -strand is guanine rich, whereas the complementary strand is cytosine rich and called the light, or L, -strand. Compared to nuclear DNA, mitochondrial DNA has a very low percentage of non-coding regions and is marked by...
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Animal and Plant Cell Structure01:30

Animal and Plant Cell Structure

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Animal and plant cells not only differ in their structure, function, and mode of nutrition but also in how they reproduce, specialize, and organize into complex structures.
Cell Division
Though both plant and animal cells divide by mitosis (for non-gametic cells) and meiosis (for gametic cells), they differ in the specifics of this process. Unlike animal cells, plant cells lack centrosomes — an organelle responsible for organizing the spindle fibers and segregating the chromosomes during...
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Molecular Models02:00

Molecular Models

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Physical models representing molecular architectures of chemical compounds play essential roles in understanding chemistry. The use of molecular models makes it easier to visualize the structures and shapes of atoms and molecules.
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The Bohr Model02:18

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Following the work of Ernest Rutherford and his colleagues in the early twentieth century, the picture of atoms consisting of tiny dense nuclei surrounded by lighter and even tinier electrons continually moving about the nucleus was well established. This picture was called the planetary model since it pictured the atom as a miniature “solar system” with the electrons orbiting the nucleus like planets orbiting the sun. The simplest atom is hydrogen, consisting of a single proton as the...
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Updated: Jan 22, 2026

Biomarkers in an Animal Model for Revealing Neural, Hematologic, and Behavioral Correlates of PTSD
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Biomarkers in an Animal Model for Revealing Neural, Hematologic, and Behavioral Correlates of PTSD

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Updates in PTSD Animal Models Characterization.

Lei Zhang1, Xian-Zhang Hu2, He Li2

  • 1Department of Psychiatry, Center for the Study of Traumatic Stress, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, MD, USA. Lezhang@USUHS.mil.

Methods in Molecular Biology (Clifton, N.J.)
|July 6, 2019
PubMed
Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

Developing validated animal models is crucial for understanding post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) molecular mechanisms and creating new treatments. Current models mimic PTSD symptoms, aiding research into this debilitating condition.

Keywords:
Animal modelFootshockPTSDStressTrauma

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Area of Science:

  • Neuroscience
  • Psychiatry
  • Animal Models

Background:

  • Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) affects over 7% of the US population and 12% of military personnel.
  • Molecular mechanisms underlying PTSD remain poorly understood, hindering novel medication development.
  • Thousands of US service members returning from Afghanistan and Iraq have been diagnosed with PTSD.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To review existing animal models for post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).
  • To highlight the need for well-validated animal models for PTSD research.
  • To establish a molecular basis for discovering new PTSD medications.

Main Methods:

  • Overview of various stress paradigms used in animal models of PTSD.
  • Emphasis on rodent models for their ability to replicate PTSD phenotypes.
  • Inclusion of homologous biological measures to assess risk and therapeutic response.

Main Results:

  • Several stress paradigms mimic behavioral and neurological alterations seen in PTSD.
  • Rodent models reproduce key behavioral and biological phenotypes relevant to PTSD.
  • Homologous biological measures are increasingly used in PTSD animal model studies.

Conclusions:

  • Refining PTSD animal models is essential for understanding molecular mechanisms.
  • Validated animal models will provide tools for developing more efficacious PTSD treatments.
  • Further research on animal models is critical for advancing PTSD therapeutics.