Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jan 4, 2026

Eye Tracking Young Children with Autism

Eye Tracking Young Children with Autism

Published on: March 27, 2012

Ophthalmologic disorders and risk factors in children with autism spectrum disorder

Melinda Y Chang¹, Nandini Gandhi², Mary O'Hara²

¹The Vision Center at the Children's Hospital of Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California; Roski Eye Center, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California.

Journal of AAPOS : the Official Publication of the American Association for Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus

|November 3, 2019

Insights

Children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) often have vision problems, including refractive errors and strabismus. Cerebral palsy increases the risk of these eye conditions in children with ASD.

Area of Science:

Ophthalmology
Pediatrics
Neurodevelopmental Disorders

Background:

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a complex neurodevelopmental condition.
Ophthalmologic comorbidities are frequently observed in children with ASD.
Understanding the spectrum of eye conditions in ASD is crucial for early intervention.

Purpose of the Study:

To review ophthalmologic findings in children diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder (ASD).
To identify the prevalence of various ophthalmic disorders in this population.
To determine risk factors associated with these eye conditions.

Main Methods:

Retrospective review of medical records for children aged 0-17 with ASD.
Data extraction included demographics, birth history, genetic testing, comorbidities, and ophthalmologic findings.
Logistic regression analysis was employed to identify risk factors for ophthalmic disorders.

Main Results:

Of 2,555 children with ASD, 380 (15%) underwent ophthalmologic evaluation.
Ophthalmic diagnoses were identified in 71% of evaluated children.
Common diagnoses included refractive error (42%), strabismus (32%), amblyopia (19%), and optic neuropathy (4%).
Cerebral palsy was a significant risk factor for refractive error, strabismus, amblyopia, and optic neuropathy.

Conclusions:

A high prevalence (71%) of ophthalmic disorders exists in children with ASD.
Rates of refractive error, strabismus, amblyopia, and optic neuropathy are elevated compared to the general pediatric population.
Co-occurring cerebral palsy may significantly increase the risk of these eye conditions in children with ASD.

Read full analysis

Abstract

Purpose:

To report the results of our review of all children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) who underwent complete pediatric ophthalmologic examination at our institution over a 10-year period.

Methods:

The medical records of all children (0-17 years of age) with a diagnosis of ASD seen at University of California, Davis, over a 10-year period were reviewed retrospectively. Demographic data, birth history, genetic testing results, neuropsychiatric comorbidities, and ophthalmologic findings were extracted from the record. Multiple logistic regression was used to identify risk factors for ophthalmologic disorders.

Results:

A total of 2,555 children with ASD were seen at the university over the study period, of whom 380 (15%) were evaluated in the ophthalmology clinic. Eye examination revealed an ophthalmic diagnosis in 71% of children, of which the most common were significant refractive error (42%), strabismus (32%), and amblyopia (19%). Optic neuropathy occurred in 14 children (4%). Cerebral palsy was a significant risk factor for refractive error (OR = 3.22; P = 0.016), strabismus (OR = 3.59; P = 0.012), amblyopia (OR = 3.49; P = 0.0097), and optic neuropathy (OR = 14.0; P = 0.0009).

Conclusions:

Ophthalmic disorders were found in 71% of children with ASD evaluated at our university-based ophthalmology clinic. The rates of significant refractive error, strabismus, amblyopia, and optic neuropathy exceeded those of the general pediatric population. ASD and cerebral palsy may have additive risk for these disorders.

More Related Videos

Comparing Eye-tracking Data of Children with High-functioning ASD, Comorbid ADHD, and of a Control Watching Social Videos

Comparing Eye-tracking Data of Children with High-functioning ASD, Comorbid ADHD, and of a Control Watching Social Videos

Published on: December 7, 2018

Testing Sensory and Multisensory Function in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder

Testing Sensory and Multisensory Function in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder

Published on: April 22, 2015

Related Concept Videos

Autism Spectrum Disorder

Autism Spectrum Disorder

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental condition marked by persistent deficits in social communication and interaction alongside restrictive and repetitive behaviors or interests. ASD is sometimes accompanied by intellectual impairment.
These core symptoms manifest differently among individuals, ranging from mild to severe. The disorder's complexity extends beyond its clinical presentation, encompassing a diverse range of biological, cognitive, and sociocultural influences.

Photoreceptors and Visual Pathways

Photoreceptors and Visual Pathways

At the molecular level, visual signals trigger transformations in photopigment molecules, resulting in changes in the photoreceptor cell's membrane potential. The photon's energy level is denoted by its wavelength, with each specific wavelength of visible light associated with a distinct color. The spectral range of visible light, classified as electromagnetic radiation, spans from 380 to 720 nm. Electromagnetic radiation wavelengths exceeding 720 nm fall under the infrared category,...

Oppositional Defiant Disorder

Oppositional Defiant Disorder

A persistent pattern of angry or irritable mood, defiant behavior, or vindictiveness characterizes Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD). Symptoms must occur over at least six months, involve interactions with individuals beyond siblings, and meet specific diagnostic criteria to be clinically significant. The disorder affects emotional regulation, social interactions, and behavior, often manifesting early in life and influencing long-term development and functioning.
Diagnostic Criteria and...

Accessory Structures of the Eye

Accessory Structures of the Eye

Optical perception, or vision, is an extraordinary sense dependent on converting light signals received via the ocular organs. These organs, known as eyes, are securely positioned within the bony cavities of the skull, called orbits. The orbits serve a dual purpose: a protective shield for the ocular globes and a stable attachment point for the soft ocular tissues. The eye's external protective mechanisms include the eyelids, which are edged with lashes that act as a barrier against foreign...

Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder

Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by persistent inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity. It affects approximately 5-8% of children globally, with around 60-70% of cases persisting into adulthood. ADHD has significant implications for educational attainment, social interactions, and occupational success.
Diagnostic Criteria and Symptoms
To diagnose ADHD, symptoms must manifest before age 12 and be evident across multiple settings....

Modeling in Therapy

Modeling in Therapy

Modeling, a key technique in therapy, uses observational learning to help clients acquire and practice new skills by watching therapists demonstrate desired behaviors. This approach, rooted in Albert Bandura's concept of vicarious learning, plays a significant role in therapeutic interventions for various psychological conditions, including social anxiety, ADHD, and depression.
Participant Modeling
Participant modeling involves therapists demonstrating calm and effective behaviors in...

Articles linked to this work by shared authors, journal, and citation graph.

Anti-VEGF versus Laser Photocoagulation Surgery for Primary Treatment of Retinopathy of Prematurity: Neurodevelopmental Outcomes: A Report by the American Academy of Ophthalmology.

Ophthalmology·2026

Validity and Reliability of the CVI Range for Clinical Research: Baseline and One-Year Results.

Ophthalmology science·2026

COG5-congenital disorder of glycosylation diagnosed by whole genome sequencing in siblings with unexplained optic atrophy, macular atrophy, and developmental delay: case report.

Frontiers in neurology·2026

Congenital Optic Nerve Anomalies and Associated Systemic Conditions.

International ophthalmology clinics·2026

Update on Cerebral/Cortical Visual Impairment (CVI) in Children.

International ophthalmology clinics·2026

Effectiveness of Corticosteroid-Sparing Topical Treatments for Vernal Keratoconjunctivitis in Children: A Report by the American Academy of Ophthalmology.

Ophthalmology·2026

See all related articles