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Covalently Linked Protein Regulators

Covalently Linked Protein Regulators

Proteins can undergo many types of post-translational modifications, often in response to changes in their environment. These modifications play an important role in the function and stability of these proteins. Covalently linked molecules include functional groups, such as methyl, acetyl, and phosphate groups, and also small proteins, such as ubiquitin. There are around 200 different types of covalent regulators that have been identified.
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Epigenetic Regulation

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Nov 11, 2025

Identifying Per- and Polyfluorinated Chemical Species with a Combined Targeted and Non-Targeted-Screening High-Resolution Mass Spectrometry Workflow

Identifying Per- and Polyfluorinated Chemical Species with a Combined Targeted and Non-Targeted-Screening High-Resolution Mass Spectrometry Workflow

Published on: April 18, 2019

Epigenetic changes by per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS).

Sujin Kim¹, Isha Thapar², Bryan W Brooks¹

¹Department of Environmental Science, Baylor University, Waco, TX, 76706, USA; Institute of Biomedical Studies, Baylor University, Waco, TX, 76706, USA.

Environmental Pollution (Barking, Essex : 1987)

|March 22, 2021

Summary

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) exposure is linked to epigenetic changes, affecting health. More research is needed on understudied PFAS and their mixtures to understand risks.

Keywords:

Endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs)Environmental epigenetics Mechanistic toxicology Molecular mechanisms Perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS)Perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA)Persistent organic pollutants (POPs)Three to ten pertinent per-and polyfluoroalkyl substance (PFAS)

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Area of Science:

Environmental toxicology
Epigenetics
Public health

Background:

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are widespread environmental contaminants.
Growing evidence links PFAS exposure to various toxicities and adverse health outcomes.
Epigenetic modifications, such as DNA methylation and microRNA expression, are implicated in PFAS toxicity.

Purpose of the Study:

To critically review current evidence on PFAS-induced epigenetic modifications and their health outcomes.
To identify research gaps concerning specific PFAS, epigenetic mechanisms, and related biomarkers.
To highlight the need for further research within an adverse outcome pathways framework.

Main Methods:

Systematic review of human epidemiological studies.
Analysis of in vitro studies using various cell types.
Examination of animal studies, including mammalian and aquatic models.

Main Results:

Epidemiological studies show associations between PFOS/PFOA exposure and epigenetic changes in human populations.
In vitro and animal studies demonstrate PFAS-induced epigenetic effects in diverse models.
Oxidative stress is identified as a potential mediator of PFAS-induced epigenetic modifications and toxicity.

Conclusions:

Epigenetic mechanisms are clearly involved in PFAS toxicity, particularly for PFOS and PFOA.
Further research is essential to elucidate specific linkages between epigenetic changes, biomarkers, and phenotypical outcomes.
Future studies should address understudied PFAS, complex mixtures, and utilize an adverse outcome pathways framework for comprehensive risk assessment.