Water stable isotopes reveal a complex rainfall to groundwater connectivity in central Honduras

The inter-mountainous region of central Honduras has been experiencing abrupt urban drinking water shortages during the last decade. Land use fragmentation and rainfall deficits have rapidly reduced surface water quality and quantity in this region. Here we present a 3-yr (2018-2020) tracer study within the headwaters of the Choluteca River basin (2949 km²). We sampled rainfall (weekly N = 156; daily N = 270), drilled wells (N = 166; up to ~300 m depth), boreholes (N = 70; ~4-12 m depth), and springs (N = 128) to assess the spatiotemporal connectivity between rainfall and mean groundwater recharge elevations (MREs). Clear W-shaped incursions characterized rainfall isotopic seasonality from the dry to the wet season. Air mass back trajectory analysis revealed three primary moisture sources: 73 % (east, Caribbean Sea), 17 % (southwest, Pacific Ocean), and 10 % (north; Gulf of Mexico). Groundwater sources exhibited a strong meteoric origin with evidence of secondary evaporation evolution, characterized by low d-excess values. MREs for the drilled wells ranged from 821 to 2018 m asl with a mean value of 1570 ± 150 m asl. Seasonal isotopic variability during dry-wet transitions and the influence of rapid infiltration limited the performance of the MRE method in springs and boreholes. MREs coincided primarily with coniferous forests, pasture, and crop areas, within regions of moderate to high transmissivity. These results are intended to guide the mapping and delineation of critical recharge areas in central Honduras to enhance municipal water regulations, effective environmental protection, and long-term conservation practices.