Related Experiment Video

Updated: Aug 16, 2025

Multimodal Protocol for Assessing Metacognition and Self-Regulation in Adults with Learning Difficulties

Multimodal Protocol for Assessing Metacognition and Self-Regulation in Adults with Learning Difficulties

Published on: September 27, 2020

Challenging behaviour and its risk factors in children and young people in a special school setting: A four wave

Gemma Nicholls^1,2, Tom Bailey², Corinna F Grindle²

¹Calthorpe Academy, Birmingham, UK.

Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities : JARID

|December 23, 2022

Abstract

Background:

Longitudinal research is needed to strengthen evidence for risk factors for challenging behaviour in children with intellectual disabilities and to understand patterns of change over time.

Methods:

Data on challenging behaviour were collected for 225 students in one school over four annual time points and a range of potential risk correlates. Data were analysed using Generalised Estimating Equations.

Results:

Prevalence of challenging behaviour, aggression and self-injury did not vary significantly over time. Stereotyped behaviours increased over the 4-year period. Challenging behaviour was associated with lower levels of adaptive skills and autism. Stereotyped behaviour increased with age. Self-injurious behaviour was less likely to be shown in children with profound intellectual disabilities over time.

Conclusions:

These findings are consistent with previous research in terms of potential risk factors identified. Implications for schools include proactive interventions for children with intellectual disabilities at high risk; especially those with autism and poorer adaptive skills.

Keywords:

challenging behaviour intellectual disabilities longitudinal design special schools

More Related Videos

Measuring the Functional Abilities of Children Aged 3-6 Years Old with Observational Methods and Computer Tools

Measuring the Functional Abilities of Children Aged 3-6 Years Old with Observational Methods and Computer Tools

Published on: June 20, 2020

Measurement of Fronto-limbic Activity Using an Emotional Oddball Task in Children with Familial High Risk for Schizophrenia

Measurement of Fronto-limbic Activity Using an Emotional Oddball Task in Children with Familial High Risk for Schizophrenia

Published on: December 2, 2015

Related Concept Videos

Conduct Disorder

Conduct Disorder

Conduct disorder is a complex mental health diagnosis characterized by a repetitive and persistent pattern of behavior that violates societal norms, the rights of others, or age-appropriate rules. The diagnostic criteria for conduct disorder require the presence of at least three problematic behaviors within the past 12 months, with at least one occurring in the past six months. These behaviors are grouped into four categories: aggression toward people and animals; destruction of property;...

Longitudinal Studies

Longitudinal Studies

Longitudinal studies are also widely used in other medical and social science fields. For instance, in cardiovascular research, they can monitor patients' health over decades to identify risk factors for heart disease, such as high cholesterol or smoking, and evaluate the long-term effectiveness of preventive measures. Similarly, in mental health studies, researchers might follow individuals from adolescence into adulthood to understand the development and progression of conditions like...

Autism Spectrum Disorder

Autism Spectrum Disorder

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental condition marked by persistent deficits in social communication and interaction alongside restrictive and repetitive behaviors or interests. ASD is sometimes accompanied by intellectual impairment.
These core symptoms manifest differently among individuals, ranging from mild to severe. The disorder's complexity extends beyond its clinical presentation, encompassing a diverse range of biological, cognitive, and sociocultural influences.

Bullying

Bullying

A modern form of aggression is bullying. As you learn in your study of child development, socializing and playing with other children is beneficial for children’s psychological development. However, as you may have experienced as a child, not all play behavior has positive outcomes. Some children are aggressive and want to play roughly. Other children are selfish and do not want to share toys. One form of negative social interactions among children that has become a national concern is...

Oppositional Defiant Disorder

Oppositional Defiant Disorder

A persistent pattern of angry or irritable mood, defiant behavior, or vindictiveness characterizes Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD). Symptoms must occur over at least six months, involve interactions with individuals beyond siblings, and meet specific diagnostic criteria to be clinically significant. The disorder affects emotional regulation, social interactions, and behavior, often manifesting early in life and influencing long-term development and functioning.
Diagnostic Criteria and...

Longitudinal Research

Longitudinal Research

Sometimes we want to see how people change over time, as in studies of human development and lifespan. When we test the same group of individuals repeatedly over an extended period of time, we are conducting longitudinal research. Longitudinal research is a research design in which data-gathering is administered repeatedly over an extended period of time. For example, we may survey a group of individuals about their dietary habits at age 20, retest them a decade later at age 30, and then again...

Articles linked to this work by shared authors, journal, and citation graph.

Longitudinal Trajectories of Behavioral and Emotional Problems Into and During Adolescence for Individuals With Intellectual Disability.

American journal on intellectual and developmental disabilities·2026

Parent-Reported Indicators of Depression in Non- and Minimally Speaking Adults With Autism.

American journal on intellectual and developmental disabilities·2026

Recommendations for the use of clinical outcome assessments in rare disease drug development.

EClinicalMedicine·2026

Cognitive and affective empathy predict young children's involvement in bullying one year later.

JCPP advances·2026

Real-world testing practices, treatment patterns, and outcomes of tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) in epidermal growth factor receptor-mutated advanced/metastatic non-small cell lung cancer: An international study.

Cancer treatment and research communications·2026

Mother-Child Closeness Trajectories in Families of Children With Intellectual Disabilities From a UK Cohort Study.

Journal of intellectual disability research : JIDR·2026

See all related articles