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E. C. Tolman emphasized the purposiveness of behavior — the idea that much of our behavior is goal-directed. For instance, employees who aim for a promotion work diligently to meet their targets. Tolman argued that when classical conditioning and operant conditioning occur, the organism acquires certain expectations. In classical conditioning, a child might fear a dog because they expect it to bite. In operant conditioning, a person might consistently work overtime because they expect a...
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[From Learning Objective to Examination: Constructive Alignment in Education and Training].

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    Teachers and learners want fair, transparent examinations. This article clarifies examination designs and their relationship with teaching methods for better understanding.

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    Area of Science:

    • Educational Assessment
    • Pedagogy

    Context:

    • The pursuit of transparent, performance-based, and fair examination systems is a shared goal for educators and students.
    • Current examination formats often present challenges in aligning with effective teaching strategies.

    Purpose:

    • To enhance the fundamental understanding of various examination designs.
    • To elucidate the complex interactions between teaching methodologies and examination formats.

    Summary:

    • This article provides insights into designing examinations that are transparent, performance-based, and equitable.
    • It explores the dynamic relationship between pedagogical approaches and assessment structures.
    • Key principles for developing effective examination formats are discussed.

    Impact:

    • Aims to equip educators with a clearer perspective on assessment design.
    • Facilitates the creation of more effective and aligned teaching and examination strategies.
    • Contributes to fostering a more equitable and transparent assessment environment in education.