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Updated: Jul 26, 2025
Measuring 3D In-vivo Shoulder Kinematics using Biplanar Videoradiography
Published on: March 12, 2021
Ex vivo experimental strategies for assessing unconstrained shoulder biomechanics: A scoping review
Jeremy Genter1, Eleonora Croci2, Hannah Ewald3
1IMES Institute of Mechanical Systems, Zurich University of Applied Sciences ZHAW, Winterthur, Switzerland; Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland; Department of Orthopaedics and Traumatology, University Hospital Basel, Basel, Switzerland.
Background:
Biomechanical studies of the shoulder often choose an ex vivo approach, especially when investigating the active and passive contribution of individual muscles. Although various simulators of the glenohumeral joint and its muscles have been developed, to date a testing standard has not been established. The objective of this scoping review was to present an overview of methodological and experimental studies describing ex vivo simulators that assess unconstrained, muscular driven shoulder biomechanics.
Methods:
All studies with ex vivo or mechanical simulation experiments using an unconstrained glenohumeral joint simulator and active components mimicking the muscles were included in this scoping review. Static experiments and humeral motion imposed through an external guide, e.g., a robotic device, were excluded.
Results:
Nine different glenohumeral simulators were identified in 51 studies after the screening process. We identified four control strategies characterized by: (a) using a primary loader to determine the secondary loaders with constant force ratios; (b) using variable muscle force ratios according to electromyography; (c) calibrating the muscle path profile and control each motor according to this profile; or (d) using muscle optimization.
Conclusion:
The simulators with the control strategy (b) (n = 1) or (d) (n = 2) appear most promising due to its capability to mimic physiological muscle loads.
