Related Experiment Video
Updated: Jul 22, 2026
13:24
A Procedure to Observe Context-induced Renewal of Pavlovian-conditioned Alcohol-seeking Behavior in Rats
Published on: September 19, 2014
Reply to Crawford and Biere-Rafi et al
Tanja A Kuut1,2, Fabiola Müller1,2, Pythia Nieuwkerk1,2,3
1Department of Medical Psychology, Amsterdam UMC Location University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, 1105 AZ, The Netherlands.
Summary
No abstract available in PubMed .
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02:35Free-Radical Chain Reaction and Polymerization of Alkenes
The conversion of alkenes to macromolecules called polymers is a reaction of high commercial importance. The structure of the polymer is defined by a repeating unit, while the terminal groups are considered insignificant. The average degree of polymerization represents the number of repeating units in the polymer molecule and is denoted by the subscript n.
02:45Acid-Catalyzed Hydration of Alkenes
Alkenes react with water in the presence of an acid to form an alcohol. In the absence of acid, hydration of alkenes does not occur at a significant rate, and the acid is not consumed in the reaction. Therefore, alkene hydration is an acid-catalyzed reaction.
02:01Alkynes to Carboxylic Acids: Oxidative Cleavage
Alkynes undergo oxidative cleavage in the presence of oxidizing reagents like potassium permanganate and ozone. The triple bond — one σ bond and two π bonds — is completely cleaved, and the alkyne is oxidized to carboxylic acids. When warm and basic aqueous potassium permanganate is used as an oxidizing agent, alkynes are first converted to carboxylate salts via an unstable α-diketone intermediate. Further, a mild acid treatment protonates the carboxylate anions generating free carboxylic acid...
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Introduction
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Wolff–Kishner reduction involves converting aldehydes and ketones to alkanes using hydrazine and a base. The reaction converts a carbonyl group to a methylene group. The method was independently discovered by N. Kishner in 1911 and L. Wolff in 1912. The reduction is carried out in high-boiling solvents such as ethylene glycol and diethylene glycol because heat is required to deprotonate the N–H proton in one of the reaction steps.
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The reverse of the aldol addition reaction is called the retro-aldol reaction. Here, the carbon–carbon bond in the aldol product is cleaved under acidic or basic conditions to form two molecules of carbonyl compounds. The mechanism of the reaction consists of three steps.
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In the first step, as depicted in Figure 1, the base deprotonates the β-hydroxy ketone at the hydroxyl group to form an alkoxide ion.