High-energy storage capacity of cellulose nanofiber supercapacitors using bound water

The performance of electric double-layer capacitors and lithium-ion batteries deteriorates with increasing humidity. The desirable effect of bound water on the energy-storage properties of physically dry cellulose nanofiber (Na-ACF) supercapacitors with sodium (Na) carboxylate radicals was investigated using infrared and near-infrared spectroscopy, and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, alternating current impedance analyses, and first-principles calculations. The storage capacity decreased gradually upon heating to 423 K and reached zero upon exceeding 483 K, accompanied by increasing electrical resistance, forming a distorted semicircle in Nyquist diagram and drawing the phase angle to zero in Bode diagram. This is attributed to the water in the hydration gel bound to the Na⁺-ions that cross-link the cellulose chains, evaporating as the temperature increases, and finally becoming Na₂O. The increased band-gap energy from the increase in bound water prevents leakage from the supercapacitor. In contrast to ordinary batteries, bound water is necessary for developing Na-ACF supercapacitors.