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Related Experiment Video

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A Two-interval Forced-choice Task for Multisensory Comparisons
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A State-Transition-Free Delayed-Feedback Task Elicits Heterogeneous Human Responses.

Satoshi Hirata1, Yutaro Sato2, Hika Kuroshima3

  • 1Wildlife Research Center, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan.

Journal of Cognition
|July 21, 2025
PubMed
Summary

Humans can learn to link actions with delayed rewards, even after intervening choices. However, understanding of this complex learning varies significantly among individuals.

Keywords:
Credit assignment problemDelayed rewardEligibility traceExplicit learningReinforcement learning

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Area of Science:

  • Cognitive Psychology
  • Behavioral Neuroscience
  • Learning Sciences

Background:

  • Action-outcome learning is fundamental for survival and adaptation.
  • Previous research has focused on immediate rewards, neglecting delayed outcomes.
  • Understanding delayed reward learning is crucial for explaining complex decision-making.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To investigate human ability to associate actions with delayed outcomes following intervening choices.
  • To explore individual differences in learning strategies and understanding of delayed reward contingencies.
  • To build upon previous findings on action-outcome association.

Main Methods:

  • A novel learning task with six visual stimuli across three trial types was designed.
  • Participants made choices in A vs B (immediate reward), C vs D (delayed reward), and E vs F (cue) trials.
  • Performance and verbal reports were analyzed to assess learning and understanding.

Main Results:

  • Nine participants successfully learned to choose the action leading to a delayed reward.
  • One participant verbally articulated the task structure; eight showed misunderstandings.
  • Significant individual differences were observed in action selection biases and explicit/implicit understanding.

Conclusions:

  • Humans possess the capacity to learn action-outcome associations with significant delays and intervening choices.
  • Cognitive linking of actions to delayed outcomes is complex and shows considerable inter-individual variability.
  • Further research is needed to understand the mechanisms underlying delayed reward learning and its subjective representation.