Carbon dots: translating versatile physicochemistry into multidisciplinary application frameworks

Carbon dots (CDs), as a novel class of carbon-based fluorescent nanomaterials, exhibit significant potential in bioimaging, optoelectronic devices, and environmental monitoring due to their tunable optical properties, biocompatibility, and environmental stability. This review systematically summarizes the physicochemical properties and developmental history of CDs. Beginning with structural features such as core-shell composition and surface functionalization, we analyze the intrinsic relationships governing their optical, electrochemical, and interfacial properties. A chronological framework is established to categorize the evolution of CD research into three phases: serendipitous discovery, iterative innovations in synthesis methods, and functionalization-driven breakthroughs in multifunctional applications. Emphasis is placed on the evolutionary patterns of their core physicochemical properties. We further discuss property-driven applications in biomedical engineering, energy/environmental systems, and biosensing to elucidate structure-property-application relationships, providing new paradigms for frontier research. Finally, current challenges are addressed, including unresolved luminescence mechanisms, scalability of synthesis, and stability in cross-scale applications. Future directions for precise design and interdisciplinary applications are proposed.