The developmental trajectories of implicit and explicit metacognitive monitoring and control in cued recall

Adults are adept at metacognitively monitoring their memory accuracy-both explicitly and implicitly-and at using metacognitive control to maintain high memory accuracy. However, the development of monitoring and control is less well understood. We administered an episodic cued recall task with children aged five to 11 years (N = 106). Participants watched two video clips of everyday episodic events before answering cued recall memory questions. For each memory question, participants provided a confidence rating (explicit monitoring), sorted their answer into show/hide boxes (control), and chose to volunteer/withhold their response (control). Multiple behavioural gestures of cognitive effort (implicit monitoring; e.g., looking to carer, non-word fillers) were recorded and later coded by blind raters. Children were less accurate and less able to assign confidence to reflect their memory accuracy when they were forced to generate a response after previously saying "I don't know". But on volunteered trials, explicit, implicit monitoring and control measures predicted memory accuracy. There were age-related improvements in explicit monitoring for predicting memory accuracy, but there were no age differences in implicit monitoring or control processes. We found evidence for both a direct and an indirect link between confidence and memory accuracy. Our findings suggest that explicit and implicit monitoring have different developmental trajectories in cued recall and that children can be adaptive to control their memory accuracy to a similar extent from early- to mid-childhood.