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Normal Strain under Axial Loading01:20

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Normal strain under axial loading is an important concept in the field of mechanics of materials. Axial loading implies the application of a force along the axis of a material, like a column or bar. This force can either compress or stretch the material. In the context of axial loading, normal strain is the deformation experienced by the material in the direction of the loading force. It's calculated as the change in length divided by the original length of the material. This unitless ratio...
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Updated: Jan 9, 2026

Measuring the Switch Cost of Smartphone Use While Walking
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Walking Speed Modulates Neck-Shoulder Strain During Smartphone Use with Backpack Load.

Yi-Lang Chen1, Dinh-Dung Nguyen1

  • 1Department of Industrial Engineering and Management, Ming Chi University of Technology, New Taipei 243303, Taiwan.

Healthcare (Basel, Switzerland)
|December 11, 2025
PubMed
Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

Walking speed and backpack weight significantly impact neck and shoulder strain when using smartphones. Backpack loads over 5% of body weight increase strain, especially during fast walking, potentially leading to fatigue.

Keywords:
backpack loadelectromyography (EMG)musculoskeletal strainposturesmartphone usewalking speed

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Area of Science:

  • Biomechanics and Ergonomics
  • Musculoskeletal Health
  • Human-Computer Interaction

Background:

  • Concurrent smartphone use and backpack carriage create ergonomic challenges for young adults.
  • The influence of walking speed on this dual-task biomechanical strain is not well understood.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To investigate how walking speed, backpack load, and gender affect postural alignment and neck-shoulder muscle activity during smartphone use.
  • To quantify the biomechanical strain associated with carrying backpacks and using smartphones.

Main Methods:

  • Thirty university students (15 males, 15 females) participated.
  • Motion capture and surface electromyography (EMG) assessed posture and muscle activity.
  • Participants completed 12 conditions: 3 backpack loads (0%, 5%, 10% body weight) and 4 locomotor states (standing, slow, normal, fast walking).

Main Results:

  • Increased backpack load significantly worsened neck flexion and upper-trunk posture, while faster walking increased lumbar flexion and neck-shoulder muscle activity (CES, UTZ).
  • Upper trapezius (UTZ) activation approached fatigue thresholds (15% MVC) with moderate loads and faster walking.
  • Females exhibited more upright postures but higher muscle activity than males.

Conclusions:

  • Walking speed is a critical factor modulating musculoskeletal strain during combined smartphone use and load carriage.
  • Backpack loads exceeding 5% of body weight may elevate the risk of neck-shoulder strain.
  • Reducing smartphone use during fast walking is recommended to prevent neck-shoulder fatigue and discomfort.