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A battery is a galvanic cell that is used as a source of electrical power for specific applications. Modern batteries exist in a multitude of forms to accommodate various applications, from tiny button batteries such as those that power wristwatches to the very large batteries used to supply backup energy to municipal power grids. Some batteries are designed for single-use applications and cannot be recharged (primary cells), while others are based on conveniently reversible cell reactions that...
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A conductor needs to be a component of a path that creates a closed loop or full circuit to have a continuous current flowing through it. A current starts to flow if an electric field is created inside an isolated conductor that is not part of a full circuit. The conductor quickly develops a net positive charge at one end and a net negative charge at the other. These charges generate an electric field opposite the direction of the applied electric field, which reduces the current. Eventually,...
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Spontaneous redox reactions occur abundantly in nature. The chemical reaction occurring in a disposable AA battery powering our remote controls is one such example of a spontaneous redox reaction. Another example is the immersion of coiled copper wire into an aqueous silver nitrate solution. The reaction shows a gradual, visually impressive color change from colorless to bright blue and the formation of a grey precipitate on the copper wire. In this experiment,...
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In a galvanic cell, the electrical work is done by a redox system on its surroundings as electrons produced by the spontaneous redox reactions are transferred through an external circuit. Alternatively, an external circuit does work on a redox system by imposing a voltage sufficient to drive an otherwise nonspontaneous reaction in a process known as electrolysis. For instance, recharging a battery involves the use of an external power source to drive the spontaneous (discharge) cell reaction in...
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One of the applications of an RC circuit is the relaxation oscillator. The relaxation oscillator comprises a voltage source, a capacitor, a resistor, and a neon lamp. The lamp acts like an open circuit (infinite resistance) until the potential difference across the neon lamp reaches a specific voltage. At that voltage, the lamp acts like a short circuit (zero resistance), and the capacitor discharges through the neon lamp and produces light. Once the capacitor is fully discharged through the...
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Self-Discharge Behaviors in Aqueous Batteries.

Han Wu1, Shao-Jian Zhang1, Yunling Jiang1

  • 1School of Chemical Engineering, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, 5005, Australia.

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|December 31, 2025
PubMed
Summary

Aqueous batteries (ABs) show promise for grid storage but suffer from self-discharge. This review analyzes AB self-discharge mechanisms, measurement methods, and mitigation strategies to improve practical applications.

Keywords:
Alkali‐ion batteriesAqueous batteriesAqueous zinc‐ion batteriesLarge scale energy storageSelf‐discharge

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Area of Science:

  • Energy Storage
  • Electrochemistry
  • Materials Science

Background:

  • Aqueous batteries (ABs) are promising for grid-scale energy storage due to safety, cost, and environmental benefits.
  • Recent advances focus on energy density and cycling stability, but self-discharge remains a critical, underexplored issue.
  • Inconsistent testing protocols hinder reliable data comparison and practical application assessment.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To systematically review and analyze self-discharge phenomena in state-of-the-art aqueous batteries.
  • To provide a theoretical framework for understanding self-discharge mechanisms and behaviors.
  • To offer guidelines for standardized testing and practical mitigation strategies.

Main Methods:

  • Comprehensive literature review of self-discharge in aqueous batteries.
  • Analysis of underlying self-discharge mechanisms.
  • Critical evaluation of current measurement approaches and mitigation strategies.

Main Results:

  • Identified self-discharge as a critical, underexplored parameter in aqueous batteries.
  • Summarized key self-discharge mechanisms and evaluated measurement inconsistencies.
  • Highlighted electrolyte and electrode-based mitigation strategies for self-discharge suppression.

Conclusions:

  • Standardized testing protocols are crucial for reliable self-discharge assessment in aqueous batteries.
  • Materials-oriented strategies can effectively suppress self-discharge.
  • Addressing self-discharge will enhance the practical relevance and commercialization of aqueous batteries.