Developmental and neurobehavioural toxicity of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances in aquatic organisms: mechanistic...

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are persistent synthetic contaminants ubiquitously detected in aquatic ecosystems, raising growing concern over their ecological and toxicological impacts. Increasing evidence demonstrates that PFAS pose significant risks to aquatic organisms, particularly during early developmental stages, by disrupting development and neurobehavioural function. This review synthesizes current knowledge on PFAS-induced developmental and neurobehavioural toxicity in aquatic organisms, integrating molecular, physiological, and behavioural evidence. Developmental exposure to legacy PFAS (e.g., PFOS, PFOA) and emerging alternatives (e.g., GenX, ADONA, HFPO-DA) are associated with embryotoxicity, pericardial edema, craniofacial abnormalities, impaired swim bladder inflation, metabolic disruption, and reduced growth and survival. Neurobehavioural effects include altered locomotion, anxiety-like behaviour, sensory processing, predator-prey interactions, and reproductive behaviours, with some effects persisting across life stages and generations. These outcomes are mechanistically linked to oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, endocrine disruption particularly perturbation of the hypothalamic-pituitary -thyroid axis neurotransmitter dysregulation, and transcriptomic, epigenetic, and non-coding RNA reprogramming. Emerging evidence also implicates microglial and neuroimmune dysfunction in PFAS-induced neurotoxicity. Notably, many PFAS alternatives exhibit toxicological profiles comparable to legacy compounds, challenging assumptions of safer substitution. This review highlights the need to integrate neurobehavioural and omics-based endpoints into PFAS risk assessment and regulatory frameworks to better protect aquatic ecosystems.