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Information enters the brain through encoding, which is the input of information into the memory system. Once sensory information is received from the environment, the brain labels or codes it. The information is then organized with similar information and connected to existing concepts. Encoding occurs through automatic processing and effortful processing.
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Feb 13, 2026

A Real-world What-Where-When Memory Test
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Published on: May 16, 2017

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Can we process information without encoding it into working memory?

Chenyu Li1, Gidon T Frischkorn1, Klaus Oberauer1

  • 1Department of Psychology, Cognitive Psychology Unit, University of Zurich.

Journal of Experimental Psychology. Learning, Memory, and Cognition
|February 12, 2026
PubMed
Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

Information that requires processing cannot be filtered out of working memory during encoding. Even when identified as irrelevant beforehand, such information is retained similarly to when identified afterward.

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Area of Science:

  • Cognitive Psychology
  • Neuroscience
  • Information Processing

Background:

  • Filtering is a key cognitive mechanism for working memory, excluding irrelevant data.
  • Previous research focused on filtering task-irrelevant distractors, not information needing brief processing.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To investigate if information requiring processing, but not long-term maintenance, can be filtered during working memory encoding.
  • To determine the limits of filtering mechanisms in working memory.

Main Methods:

  • A novel complex-span task was designed with three conditions: pre-cue (filtering possible), retro-cue (filtering prevented), and control (no distractors).
  • Memory performance was compared across conditions.
  • The memory measurement model (Oberauer & Lewandowsky, 2019) was used to estimate distractor memory strength.

Main Results:

  • Memory performance in the pre-cue condition was similar to the retro-cue condition, but worse than the control.
  • Distractor information requiring processing showed similar retention in working memory regardless of cue timing (pre- vs. retro-cue).

Conclusions:

  • Information that necessitates processing cannot be selectively filtered out of working memory during the encoding stage.
  • Working memory filtering is less effective for information that must be processed, even if not maintained long-term.