Autonomy in learning: Predictability modulates the beneficial effect of choice on memory
Zhaoqi Zhang1, Lieke L F van Lieshout2, Harold Bekkering2
1Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University, Nijmegen, The Netherlands. claire.zhang@donders.ru.nl.
Memory & Cognition
|February 25, 2026
Summary
Offering choices improves learning and memory, even when outcomes are uncertain. This benefit stems from both the motivation choices provide and their role in enhancing prediction accuracy.
Area of Science:
- Cognitive Psychology
- Educational Psychology
- Neuroscience
Background:
- Choice is known to enhance learning, but the underlying cognitive mechanisms are debated.
- Self-determination theory suggests intrinsic motivation from choice.
- Predictive coding theory posits that choice aids learning by improving prediction of information.
Purpose of the Study:
- To investigate the cognitive mechanisms behind the beneficial effect of choice on memory.
- To differentiate between motivational and predictive coding explanations for choice-induced learning benefits.
- To examine how predictability influences the effect of choice on memory accuracy.
Main Methods:
- Two experiments were conducted with a total of 111 participants.
- A learning task manipulated the presence of choice and the predictability of outcomes.
- Memory accuracy was assessed using a recognition task.
Main Results:
- Choice significantly improved memory accuracy under both high and low predictability conditions.
- The facilitatory effect of choice on memory was reduced under low predictability.
- Findings supported both motivational and predictive coding roles of choice in learning.
Conclusions:
- Choice enhances memory through both intrinsic motivation and improved prediction processes.
- Educational settings should incorporate opportunities for student choice to foster learning.
- Understanding choice's cognitive impact can inform pedagogical strategies to meet student needs.
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