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When the quality of water for concrete preparation is uncertain, its impact on the setting time of cement and compressive strength of mortar is assessed by comparison with de-ionized or distilled water benchmarks. American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) C1602 requires the setting times to be within 90 minutes of the control, British Standard (BS) 3146:1980 allows a 30-minute variance in the initial setting, while British Standards European Norm (BS EN) 1008 specifies initial setting...
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Continuous Hydrologic and Water Quality Monitoring of Vernal Ponds
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UAV-Deployable Open-Source Sensor Nodes for Spatial and Temporal In Situ Water Quality Monitoring and Mapping.

Matthew Burnett1, Mohamed Abdelwahab1, Joud N Satme1

  • 1Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC 29208, USA.

Sensors (Basel, Switzerland)
|February 27, 2026
PubMed
Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

A low-cost, open-source sensor node deployed by unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) enables real-time, spatially resolved water quality monitoring. This system provides an accessible tool for assessing surface water conditions and mapping pollution.

Keywords:
UAV deploymentdata-driven water quality mappingin situ sensorsopen-source hardwarespatial interpolation (Kriging)surface water quality assessmentwater quality monitoring

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Area of Science:

  • Environmental Science
  • Sensor Technology
  • Aquatic Ecosystems

Background:

  • Effective water quality management requires cost-efficient, spatially resolved monitoring.
  • Existing methods can be expensive and lack real-time, high-resolution data.
  • Protecting aquatic ecosystems necessitates continuous assessment of surface-water conditions.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To develop a low-cost, open-source sensor node for unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) deployment.
  • To enable real-time, in situ assessment of key surface water quality parameters.
  • To demonstrate the system's capability for spatially resolved water quality mapping.

Main Methods:

  • Integration of sensors for pH, turbidity, temperature, and total dissolved solids (TDS).
  • Onboard data logging with real-time clock (RTC) synchronization.
  • Validation through bench testing and field deployment with Ordinary Kriging interpolation.

Main Results:

  • The sensor node, costing approximately USD 200, achieved low validation errors (pH: 1.34%, TDS: 5.23%, temperature: 0.81%).
  • Continuous operation for 42 hours was achieved.
  • Field deployment successfully mapped spatial gradients in pH (6.0-6.7), turbidity (11-18 NTU), TDS (44-51 ppm), and temperature (22.8-24.6 °C).

Conclusions:

  • The open-source, UAV-deployable sensor node offers a cost-effective solution for real-time water quality monitoring.
  • The system effectively resolves spatial water quality variations, facilitating detailed mapping.
  • This accessible platform supports both community-based and research-driven aquatic ecosystem assessments.