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Related Concept Videos

Cationic Chain-Growth Polymerization: Mechanism00:57

Cationic Chain-Growth Polymerization: Mechanism

3.1K
The cationic polymerization mechanism consists of three steps: initiation, propagation, and termination. In the initiation step of the polymerization process, the π bond of a monomer gets protonated by the Lewis acid catalyst, which is formed from boron trifluoride and water. The protonation of the π bond generates a carbocation stabilized by the electron‐donating group. In the propagation step, the π bond of the second monomer acts as a nucleophile and attacks the...
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Step-Growth Polymerization: Overview01:03

Step-Growth Polymerization: Overview

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Step-growth or condensation polymerization is a stepwise reaction of bi or multifunctional monomers to form long-chain polymers. As all the monomers are reactive, most of the monomers are consumed at the early stages of the reaction to form small chains of reactive oligomers, which then combine to form long polymer chains in the late stages. Hence, the reaction has to proceed for a long time to achieve high molecular weight polymers.
Many natural and synthetic polymers are produced by...
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Anionic Chain-Growth Polymerization: Mechanism01:04

Anionic Chain-Growth Polymerization: Mechanism

2.6K
The mechanism for anionic chain-growth polymerization involves initiation, propagation, and termination steps. In the initiation step, a nucleophilic anion, such as butyl lithium, initiates the polymerization process by attacking the π bond of the vinylic monomer. As a result, a carbanion, stabilized by the electron‐withdrawing group, is generated. The resulting carbanion acts as a Michael donor in the propagation step and attacks the second vinylic monomer, which acts as a Michael...
2.6K
Anionic Chain-Growth Polymerization: Overview01:20

Anionic Chain-Growth Polymerization: Overview

2.8K
The polymerization process that involves carbanion as an intermediate is called anionic polymerization. It is also a type of addition or chain-growth polymerization. Anionic polymerization gets initiated by a strong nucleophile such as an organolithium or a Grignard reagent. The most commonly used initiator for anionic polymerization is butyl lithium. Monomers involved in anionic polymerization must possess a vinyl group bonded to one or two electron-withdrawing groups. For instance,...
2.8K
Actin Polymerization and Cell Motility01:13

Actin Polymerization and Cell Motility

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Actin is a family of globular proteins that are highly abundant in eukaryotic cells. It makes up approximately 1-5% of total cell protein concentration. Actin monomers polymerize to form a complex network of polarized filaments, the actin cytoskeleton, that plays a crucial role in many cellular processes, including cell motility, division, endocytosis, and metastasis of cancer cells.
Actin cytoskeleton dynamics can produce pushing, pulling, and resistance forces that help the cell to migrate....
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The Colloidal State01:29

The Colloidal State

164
The formation of a colloidal system is exemplified by an aqueous solution containing Cl− ions is introduced to another containing Ag+ ions, resulting in the precipitation of solid AgCl as extremely tiny crystals. Instead of settling out as a filterable precipitate, these crystals remain suspended in the liquid, showcasing a colloidal system.A colloidal system involves colloidal particles within the approximate range of 1 to 1000 nm in at least one dimension, dispersed in a medium called...
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Apr 17, 2026

Chemical Dimerization-Induced Protein Condensates on Telomeres
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Chemical Dimerization-Induced Protein Condensates on Telomeres

Published on: April 12, 2021

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Phase separation induced by active polymerization makes protocells robust against environmental changes.

Xi Chen1, Jens-Uwe Sommer1,2,3, Tyler S Harmon1

  • 1Division Theory of Polymers, Leibniz Institute of Polymer Research, Dresden 01069, Germany.

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
|April 15, 2026
PubMed
Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

Protocells may have formed from phase-separated polymers. These protocells demonstrated resilience in fluctuating environments due to fuel-driven polymerization hysteresis, aiding survival during energy shortages.

Keywords:
nonequilibrium thermodynamicsphase separationpolymerizationprotocell

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Area of Science:

  • Origin of Life studies
  • Biochemistry
  • Systems Chemistry

Background:

  • The emergence of early life, particularly protocells, is a key question in origin of life research.
  • One leading hypothesis suggests protocells formed via liquid-liquid phase separation of polymers.
  • Existing models do not fully explain protocell survival in dynamic or cyclical environments.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To investigate a model for protocell formation and survival in fluctuating environments.
  • To explore the role of spontaneous and fuel-driven polymerization in droplet stability.
  • To understand the resilience mechanisms of early protocell candidates.

Main Methods:

  • Developed a model system combining spontaneous polymerization with droplet-facilitated fuel-driven polymerization.
  • Analyzed droplet behavior and stability under varying fuel availability.
  • Investigated the phenomenon of stationary hysteresis in relation to fuel concentration.

Main Results:

  • The model system demonstrated stationary hysteresis with respect to available fuel.
  • Droplets remained stable even when fuel-driven polymerization reactions decreased.
  • This stability suggests a mechanism for protocell persistence in fluctuating conditions.

Conclusions:

  • Fuel-driven polymerization hysteresis offers a potential mechanism for protocell formation.
  • This robustness could explain protocell survival during early Earth's environmental challenges, like energy scarcity.
  • The findings provide insights into the resilience of early life precursors.