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Diabetes: Management and Pharmacotherapy

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The therapy for diabetes aims to alleviate hyperglycemia-related symptoms, prevent acute metabolic decompensation, and reduce chronic end-organ complications. Glycemic control is evaluated through short-term (self-monitoring, continuous glucose monitoring) and long-term (A1c, fructosamine) metrics, enabling near real-time tracking of blood glucose levels and reflecting glycemic control over specific time frames.
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Hyperglycemia

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Hyperglycemia is an abnormally high blood glucose level. It is diagnosed by fasting glucose ≥126 mg/dL, 2-hour oral glucose tolerance test (or OGTT) ≥200 mg/dL, random glucose ≥200 mg/dL with symptoms, or HbA1c ≥6.5%. However, HbA1c results may be unreliable in certain conditions, such as anemia or hemoglobinopathies, and the diagnosis should be confirmed unless classic symptoms are present. Postprandial hyperglycemia is typically considered significant when glucose...

Diabetes Mellitus: Introduction

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Diabetes mellitus consists of chronic metabolic disorders characterized by persistent hyperglycemia. This elevated blood glucose results from defects in insulin secretion, impaired insulin action, or both. Insulin, produced by pancreatic β-cells, is essential for maintaining glucose homeostasis by facilitating cellular glucose uptake for energy or storage. Disruptions in insulin production or function lead to glucose accumulation in the bloodstream, causing the clinical features and...

Type I Diabetes I: Introduction

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Type 1 diabetes mellitus is a chronic metabolic disorder characterized by an absolute deficiency of insulin resulting from the autoimmune destruction of pancreatic β-cells. Although it can occur at any age, it is most commonly diagnosed in childhood, adolescence, or early adulthood. The loss of insulin production impairs cellular glucose uptake, resulting in persistent hyperglycemia and necessitating lifelong insulin therapy.Autoimmune Destruction of β-CellsThe hallmark of type 1...

Hypoglycemia and Glucagon

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Without prolonged fasting, healthy individuals maintain blood glucose levels above 3.5 mM due to a well-adapted neuroendocrine counterregulatory system that effectively prevents acute hypoglycemia, a potentially life-threatening condition. The primary clinical scenarios for hypoglycemia encompass diabetes treatment, inappropriate production of endogenous insulin or insulin-like substances by tumors, and the use of glucose-lowering agents in non-diabetic individuals. Notably, hypoglycemia in the...

Diabetes Mellitus: Type 2 and Gestational

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Type 2 diabetes, characterized by insulin resistance, arises when the insulin receptors on cells lose responsiveness to insulin, diminishing the cell's capacity to take up glucose, resulting in elevated blood glucose levels. To receive a diagnosis of Type 2 diabetes, a series of blood glucose tests are necessary to assess whether the blood glucose falls within normal parameters. If the result is out of the normal range, a patient may be diagnosed as prediabetic or diabetic, depending on the...

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Pharmacy Student Confidence and Practice Readiness After Diabetes Educational Module With CGM Use.

Allison Hursman¹, Elizabeth Monson², Allyson Luthi²

¹Population Health, Essentia Health, Fargo, ND, USA.

The Journal of Pharmacy Technology : Jpt : Official Publication of the Association of Pharmacy Technicians

|April 24, 2026

Summary

This summary is machine-generated.

Pharmacy students showed increased confidence in managing diabetes technology after a continuous glucose monitoring (CGM) education module. Hands-on experience with CGM devices improved readiness for practice.

Keywords:

continuous glucose monitoring diabetes education diabetes technology hands-on learning pharmacy education skills laboratory

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Area of Science:

Medical Education
Endocrinology
Pharmacy Practice

Background:

Continuous glucose monitoring (CGM) is crucial for diabetes management, yet formal instruction in Doctor of Pharmacy (PharmD) curricula is often limited.
Hands-on learning experiences can enhance pharmacy students' confidence and preparedness for utilizing diabetes technology in practice.

Purpose of the Study:

To evaluate the impact of a diabetes education module, including personal CGM use, on pharmacy students' confidence, beliefs, and reflections.
To assess the effectiveness of integrating practical CGM experience into pharmacy skills laboratories.

Main Methods:

A 2-week diabetes education module with didactic and hands-on components, including personal CGM wear, was delivered to third-year pharmacy students.
Pre- and post-intervention surveys assessed student confidence and beliefs, with thematic analysis of qualitative reflections.
Quantitative data were analyzed using t tests and analysis of variance.

Main Results:

Student confidence significantly increased post-intervention (mean 2.44 vs 4.50, P < 0.001) with a large effect size.
Belief scores remained stable and showed low reliability; confidence scores were highly reliable.
Qualitative themes included enhanced knowledge, awareness of glucose impacts, and improved practice readiness.

Conclusions:

A diabetes education module incorporating short-term CGM use substantially improved pharmacy students' confidence and provided practice-relevant insights.
Structured, hands-on CGM education is recommended to better prepare pharmacy graduates for technology-enabled diabetes care.