Related Experiment Video
Updated: May 9, 2026
Quantitative Assessment Protocol for Facial Soft Tissue Volumetric Changes with Stereophotogrammetry
Published on: December 9, 2025
Three Data-Driven Lip Soft-Tissue Phenotypes and Their Dento-Skeletal Associations in Orthodontic Patients: An
Xiaoqi Zhang1, Lu Xing1, Waseem Ai-Gumaei1
1State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases, National Clinical Research Center of Oral Diseases, Department of Orthodontics, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China.
Background:
Conventional facial diagnosis emphasizes skeletal and dental measures while lip features are assessed piecemeal. We aimed to identify data-driven lip soft-tissue phenotypes using unsupervised machine learning and examine their associations with skeletal and dental characteristics.
Methods:
In a retrospective cross-sectional study, 10 lip measurements were extracted from standardized lateral cephalometric radiographs. Variables were z-score standardized and analysed using k-means clustering. Of 26 NbClust validation indices, 14 (53.8%) supported a three-cluster solution. Cluster stability was assessed by bootstrap resampling (B = 100) and 10-fold cross-validation. Post hoc feature importance was evaluated using PCA, Random Forest, SVM and XGBoost. A decision tree was trained and evaluated by 10-fold cross-validation repeated five times. Associations with craniofacial parameters were examined via within-class ANOVA, Cramér's V and hierarchical regression. Concordant pairings were defined as Cluster 1-Class I, Cluster 2-Class II and Cluster 3-Class III; all others were classified as discordant.
Results:
Three phenotypes emerged-Thin-Straight (n = 638), Protrusive-Convex (n = 644) and Thick-Concave (n = 389)-showing broad correspondence with skeletal Classes I, II and III, respectively (Cramér's V = 0.386; overall concordance 52.8%). Lip protrusion and thickness were the primary discriminators (4/4 method consensus for UL_EP_mm, Cm_Sn_Ls, SSD; 3/4 for ULT). Within each skeletal class, all lip variables differed significantly across phenotypes (all p < 0.001; η2 = 0.10-0.54 for lip variables), and lip phenotype independently predicted incisor inclination beyond skeletal covariates (ΔR2adj = 0.058-0.078, p < 0.001). An interpretable decision tree achieved 88.0% cross-validated accuracy (macro-F1 = 0.876) for phenotype assignment.
Conclusions:
Unsupervised learning identified three reproducible lip soft-tissue phenotypes that complement conventional dentoskeletal description by capturing within-class soft-tissue heterogeneity. The framework is exploratory and requires prospective external validation and outcome-based studies before clinical triage application.
