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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jun 12, 2026

Examining Bilingual Language Control Using the Stroop Task

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Published on: February 26, 2020

The bilingual math dilemma - Language switching costs in declarative and procedural arithmetic knowledge.

Kevin M Baumschlager¹, Moritz Wußing², Cornelia Pachner³

¹Department of Psychology, University of Graz, Austria.

|June 10, 2026

Summary

Bilinguals experience language switching costs (LSC) in both declarative and procedural arithmetic knowledge, which persist for months. These costs highlight the language-dependent nature of arithmetic skills in bilingual individuals.

Keywords:

Bilingualism Declarative arithmetic knowledge Encoding specificity Language switching costs Learning processes Procedural arithmetic knowledge Triple code model

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Area of Science:

Cognitive Science
Psycholinguistics
Bilingualism Research

Background:

Language Switching Costs (LSC) reveal language-dependency in knowledge representation.
Existing research shows LSC in declarative arithmetic, but not procedural arithmetic knowledge.
Gaps exist in understanding LSC's long-term stability, cognitive underpinnings, and relation to individual differences.

Purpose of the Study:

Investigate LSC in procedural arithmetic knowledge.
Examine the long-term stability of LSC in both declarative and procedural arithmetic.
Explore the relationship between LSC and cognitive competencies in bilinguals.

Main Methods:

Trained 122 bilingual participants on artificial arithmetic facts (declarative) and a novel procedure (procedural) over four days in L1 or L2.
Tested participants on trained material in both languages at 1 day, 1 week, 1 month, and 3 months post-training.
Collected self-reports on translation processes during testing.

Main Results:

LSC were observed in reaction times for both declarative and procedural arithmetic knowledge.
These LSC persisted for up to 3 months after training.
No significant associations were found between LSC and individual cognitive competencies.

Conclusions:

Both declarative and procedural arithmetic knowledge are language-dependent in bilinguals.
LSC in arithmetic are stable over at least three months.
Findings partially align with triple code models and have implications for understanding bilingual arithmetic cognition.