Physico-Chemical and Mineral Variability of Apis mellifera Bee Venom Across Seasons and Feeding Regimes

Bee venom variability is driven by environmental and nutritional factors, yet their integrated effects remain poorly understood. This study provides a novel, comprehensive assessment combining dietary treatments with real-time environmental monitoring to evaluate their joint influence on the physico-chemical properties, total amino acid, mineral composition, and heavy metal content of Apis mellifera venom. A total of 32 samples collected between April and July 2025 were analyzed under both artificial feeding and natural foraging conditions. Moisture ranged from 11.2% to 19.2%, while pH remained stable (5.6-6.25). Total amino acids varied between 344.0 and 409.5 mg/g, with maximum values during the acacia period (>400 mg/g). Potassium was the dominant macroelement (3.19-11.37 mg/g), followed by Ca (0.80-3.68 mg/g) and P (0.31-1.84 mg/g). Microelements such as Fe (0.11-0.98 mg/g) and Mn (1.19-8.85 µg/g) showed pronounced seasonal variability. Lead reached up to 36.18 µg/g during natural foraging, while Cd (0.30-3.97 µg/g) was mainly associated with artificial feeding. By integrating nutritional and microclimatic determinants, this study demonstrates that floral origin and seasonal dynamics are the primary drivers of venom quality, while supplementation exerts secondary effects, and highlights the potential of bee venom as a sensitive bioindicator of environmental exposure.