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A Modified Trier Social Stress Test for Vulnerable Mexican American Adolescents
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Hate-Related Victimization in Schools: Examining Risk and Protective Factors.

Michelle Penagos1, Jimin Pyo2

  • 1San Diego State University, CA, USA.

Journal of Interpersonal Violence
|June 26, 2026
PubMed
Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

Hate-related victimization in schools disproportionately affects females, students with disabilities, and marginalized racial/ethnic groups. School environment factors like peer behavior and drug presence increase risk, while safety measures and teacher respect offer protection.

Keywords:
hate-related victimizationprotective factorsrisk factorsschool crimevictimization

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Area of Science:

  • Educational Psychology
  • Criminology
  • Sociology

Background:

  • Hate crimes are a growing national concern.
  • Understanding hate-related victimization in schools is limited.
  • This study addresses the gap in knowledge regarding school-based hate crimes.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To examine individual and school-related risk and protective factors for hate-related victimization in educational settings.
  • To analyze data from the 2022 National Crime Victimization Survey-School Crime Supplement (NCVS-SCS).

Main Methods:

  • Analysis of the 2022 NCVS-SCS data.
  • Statistical examination of individual characteristics (gender, disability, race/ethnicity) and school characteristics (peer behavior, drugs, metal detectors, rule fairness, teacher respect).

Main Results:

  • Individual risk factors include being female, having a disability, and belonging to a marginalized racial or ethnic group.
  • School risk factors include misbehaving classmates and drugs.
  • Protective factors include metal detectors, perceived fairness of school rules, and respectful treatment by teachers.

Conclusions:

  • Specific individual and school environmental factors are significantly associated with hate-related victimization.
  • Findings highlight vulnerable student populations and environmental influences.
  • Implications for prevention strategies and future research in school safety are discussed.