Reducing student loneliness through campus design: Environmental, psychological, and social mechanisms

Loneliness is a pressing public health concern and a key precursor to psychological distress. While prior research has linked the built environments with loneliness, limited attention has been given to campus environments. To address this gap, we surveyed 828 students at two large land-grant universities - one in Texas (n = 400) and one in Pennsylvania (n = 428). This study examined the relationship between perceived campus environments (i.e., greenness, walkability, and seating) and students' loneliness, considering the mediating roles of perceived restorativeness (PR), perceived safety (PS), and social relationship satisfaction (SRS). Logit regression and structural equation modeling were used to examine direct and indirect pathways. The results indicated that perceived campus environments were indirectly associated with student loneliness. Social relationship satisfaction mediated the association between perceived seating availability and loneliness, while perceived greenness and walkability were linked to lower loneliness through serial mediation pathways involving PR, PS, and SRS. These pathways varied across the two campuses, highlighting the need for a context-responsive approach that considers each campus's environmental, psychological, and social characteristics. The findings provide evidence-based insights for campus planners and policymakers by highlighting the importance of students' perceptions of high-quality green spaces, pedestrian-friendly pathways, and abundant, comfortable seating. Design interventions that enhance students' experiences of these environments may support restoration, strengthen perceived safety, and foster social interaction, thereby contributing to lower loneliness. Additionally, complementary support programs, such as nature prescriptions and social engagement events, could be integrated into university policies to further support students' overall well-being.