Artificial intelligence for brain cancer management: multimodal digital workflows for diagnosis, treatment planning,...

Brain cancers, especially glioblastoma, remain among the deadliest adult cancers, with outcomes largely unchanged despite multimodal treatments. This review summarizes cutting-edge artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML) advances transforming neuro-oncology in diagnostics, molecular profiling, treatment planning, and monitoring. Key findings show AI-driven radiomics and deep learning (DL) reaching over 90% accuracy in tumour segmentation and grading from MRI and whole-slide images, non-invasive IDH/MGMT prediction through liquid biopsy (LB) analysis, and augmented reality-guided resection that maximizes tumour removal while safeguarding expressive cortex. Treatment planning benefits from hybrid Convolutional Neural Networks (CNN)-Transformer models for immunotherapy stratification and blood-brain barrier penetrant drug repurposing, while real-time progression detection via multimodal integration helps differentiate true progression from pseudoprogression. Despite these advances, significant challenges remain, including data scarcity and imbalance in rare subtypes, domain shift due to imaging variability, black-box model behaviour eroding trust, regulatory requirements for prospective validation, and workflow fragmentation. Emerging solutions include federated and transfer learning for scalable model development, explainable AI (such as SHapley Additive exPlanations (SHAP) and attention interpretation for vision transformers) to foster clinician-AI collaboration, and foundation models pretrained on large-scale neuro-oncology datasets to facilitate personalization. Achieving this potential will depend on harmonized multi-omics registries, strong ethical and regulatory governance, and deliberate human-AI collaboration frameworks to integrate these tools into precision neuro-oncology.