Current trends in the analysis of mycotoxins in bee products: Occurrence, extraction, and determination

Bee products, including honey, bee pollen, propolis, and royal jelly, are increasingly valued for their nutritional and bioactive properties. However, these matrices may also be contaminated by mycotoxins, toxic secondary metabolites produced by fungi under inadequate agricultural and storage conditions. Although mycotoxin contamination has been extensively investigated in cereals and animal feed, studies involving bee products remain limited, despite their increasing consumption and commercial relevance. This review is the first to comprehensively compile and critically discuss current methodologies for the extraction and determination of mycotoxins specifically in bee products. Emphasis is placed on advances reported over approximately the last five years, including improvements in sample preparation and the application of chromatographic and mass spectrometric techniques. Additionally, occurrence data are examined in light of analytical performance, limitations, and emerging challenges. The implementation of sensitive and robust analytical strategies is essential to ensure product safety, support regulatory monitoring, and preserve the functional quality of bee-derived foods within the global food system.