Displacement-Field-Induced Ionization of Defect States in High-Quality hBN

Encapsulation of two-dimensional (2D) materials with hexagonal boron nitride (hBN) is widely used to fabricate ultraclean van der Waals (vdW) heterostructures for optoelectronic and quantum transport studies. These devices are often operated under strong out-of-plane displacement fields that tune the electronic properties of the active 2D material, while the surrounding hBN is typically assumed to remain electronically inert. This assumption, however, neglects defect states that are present even in high-quality hBN crystals. Here, we probe their response to the applied displacement field using monolayer graphene encapsulated between hBN crystals as a sensitive charge sensor. Increasing the displacement field induces notable charge transfer between graphene and hBN, producing additional electron doping of ≈10-20 × 109 cm-2 even at the moderate displacement field (∼0.5 V nm-1), while simultaneously increasing carrier-density inhomogeneity of the graphene layer. Both effects are consistent with ionization of defect states within the hBN bandgap, with the bulk density ∼1-7 × 10-5 nm-3 varying across different hBN crystals. Our results show that displacement-field-induced defect ionization in hBN can modify the electronic response of vdW heterostructures, with direct implications for device design and interpretation of experiments.