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Methods of Nuclear Reprogramming

Methods of Nuclear Reprogramming

Nuclear reprogramming is a process of transforming one cell type into an unrelated cell type by epigenetic changes that alter the cell’s original gene expression pattern. Such epigenetic changes force cells to express a different set of genes, which play a significant role in inducing transformation into other cell types. Nuclear reprogramming offers applications in reproductive cloning for livestock propagation and regenerative medicine — developing patient-specific cells for injury repair.

Forced Transdifferentiation

Forced Transdifferentiation

Transdifferentiation, also known as lineage reprogramming, was first discovered by Selman and Kafatos in 1974 in silkmoths. They observed that the moths’ cuticle-producing cells transformed into salt-producing cells. Many such cases of natural transdifferentiation occur in organisms. In humans, pancreatic alpha cells can become beta cells. In newts, the loss of the eye’s lens causes the pigmented epithelial cells to transdifferentiate into the lens cells.
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Somatic to iPS Cell Reprogramming

Somatic to iPS Cell Reprogramming

Reprogramming alters the gene expression in somatic cells, transforming them into induced pluripotent stem (iPS) cells over several generations. Scientists can reprogram cells by introducing genes for four transcription factors—Oct4, Sox2, Klf4, and c-Myc (OSKM) by viral or non-viral methods. These factors are also known as Yamanaka factors after Shinya Yamanaka, who first generated iPS cells using mouse skin cells. Yamanaka was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 2012 for this...

Master Transcription Regulators

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Master transcription regulators are regulatory proteins that are predominantly responsible for regulating the expression of multiple genes. Often these genes work in concert to drive a complex process. Activation of a master transcription regulator can lead to a cascade of transcriptional activation necessary for that outcome. These regulators can directly bind to the regulatory sequences of the various genes involved, or they can indirectly regulate transcription by binding to regulatory...

Cellular Differentiation

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How does a complex organism such as a human develop from a single cell? It all starts from a single fertilized egg which gives rise to a vast array of cell types, such as nerve cells, muscle cells, and epithelial cells that characterize the adult? Throughout development and adulthood, cellular differentiation leads cells to assume their final morphology and physiology. Differentiation is the process by which unspecialized cells become specialized to carry out distinct functions.
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Introduction to Nuclear Reprogramming

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Nuclear reprogramming is the process of switching gene expression of one cell type to that of another cell type, usually from a differentiated cell state to an undifferentiated cell state. Differentiation occurs during processes such as development and morphogenesis, tissue regeneration, and malignancy. Cells can also be artificially induced to reprogram their gene expression by techniques such as nuclear transfer, induced pluripotency, and cell fusion. Such techniques have many applications in...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jun 27, 2026

Assessing Cardiomyocyte Subtypes Following Transcription Factor-mediated Reprogramming of Mouse Embryonic Fibroblasts

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Reprogramming and differentiation in mammals: motifs and mechanisms.

W N de Vries¹, A V Evsikov, L J Brogan

¹The Jackson Laboratory, Bar Harbor, Maine 04609, USA

Cold Spring Harbor Symposia on Quantitative Biology

|November 22, 2008

Summary

Mammalian egg and sperm reprogramming is rapid and efficient, forming totipotent zygotes. Induced pluripotent stem cell reprogramming is slower and less efficient, suggesting diverse regulatory mechanisms are involved.

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Cell Surface Marker Mediated Purification of iPS Cell Intermediates from a Reprogrammable Mouse Model

Cell Surface Marker Mediated Purification of iPS Cell Intermediates from a Reprogrammable Mouse Model

Published on: September 6, 2014

Area of Science:

Developmental Biology
Stem Cell Biology
Epigenetics

Background:

Mammalian gamete reprogramming is a highly efficient process, generating totipotent zygotes within 24 hours.
Somatic cell nuclear transfer into oocytes can create totipotent embryos but is inefficient and requires activation.
Reprogramming somatic cells into induced pluripotent stem (iPS) cells is a lengthy and inefficient process.

Purpose of the Study:

To compare the efficiency and temporal dynamics of natural gamete reprogramming versus induced pluripotent stem cell generation.
To investigate the regulatory mechanisms underlying efficient gamete reprogramming versus less efficient somatic cell reprogramming.

Main Methods:

Comparative analysis of reprogramming efficiencies and timelines.
Review of known molecular mechanisms involved in gamete and somatic cell reprogramming.

Main Results:

Gamete reprogramming is significantly faster and more efficient than iPS cell reprogramming.
iPS cell reprogramming appears to rely heavily on transcriptional control, involving factors like OCT4, NANOG, and SOX2.
Efficient gamete reprogramming suggests the involvement of additional mechanisms, including chromatin remodeling, translational regulation, and protein/RNA degradation.

Conclusions:

Different reprogramming strategies (natural gamete vs. induced somatic) utilize distinct regulatory pathways.
Understanding these diverse mechanisms is crucial for improving iPS cell generation efficiency and for broader applications in regenerative medicine.