Related Experiment Video
Updated: May 8, 2026
14:43
Universal Screening for Prevention of Reading, Writing, and Math Disabilities in Spanish
Published on: July 18, 2020
Reading skill components and impairments in middle school struggling readers
Paul T Cirino1, Melissa A Romain, Amy E Barth
1Department of Psychology, University of Houston, 4800 Calhoun St., Houston, TX 77204-5053, USA; Texas Institute for Measurement, Evaluation, and Statistics (TIMES), Houston, TX, USA.
Reading and Writing
|September 4, 2013
Summary
Reading difficulties in middle schoolers show varied overlaps. Most struggling readers have multiple issues, particularly in comprehension, but also often in decoding or fluency.
Area of Science:
- Educational Psychology
- Developmental Psychology
- Cognitive Science
Background:
- Reading proficiency involves decoding, fluency, and comprehension.
- Understanding the interplay of these components is crucial for identifying reading difficulties.
- Previous research has not fully elucidated the distinct patterns of overlap among struggling and typical readers.
Purpose of the Study:
- To investigate the overlap between decoding, fluency, and comprehension in middle school students.
- To determine if this overlap pattern differs between struggling and typical readers.
- To assess the prevalence of different types of reading difficulties.
Main Methods:
- A large sample of 1,748 middle school students (grades 6-8) was analyzed, with oversampling of struggling readers (n=1,025).
- Multigroup confirmatory factor analyses were employed to examine the relationships between reading components.
- Students were assessed using state reading comprehension proficiency measures and nationally standardized tests.
Main Results:
- Multigroup confirmatory factor analyses revealed partial invariance between struggling and typical readers, with distinct loadings for fluency and comprehension.
- Strict invariance was observed for decoding and a combined fluency/comprehension factor.
- Among struggling readers, 85% exhibited weaknesses on standardized measures, predominantly in comprehension, but most also had decoding or fluency deficits.
Conclusions:
- The number of students with isolated comprehension problems may be lower than previously estimated.
- The relationships between different reading components (decoding, fluency, comprehension) are not uniform and vary significantly between struggling and proficient readers.
- These findings have implications for the accurate diagnosis and targeted intervention for reading difficulties in adolescents.
Related Concept Videos
01:25Learning Disabilities
Learning disabilities are cognitive disorders caused by neurological impairments that affect cognitive functions like language and reading, without indicating overall intellectual or developmental challenges. These disabilities differ from global intellectual or developmental disabilities as they are limited to distinct cognitive functions. Common learning disabilities include dysgraphia, dyslexia, and dyscalculia, each of which impacts unique aspects of learning.
Dyslexia
Dyslexia is a...
Dyslexia
Dyslexia is a...
01:27Language and Cognition
Language serves as a bridge between ideas and communication, influencing how individuals perceive and interact with the world. Psychologists have long debated whether language shapes thought or vice versa. This discussion gained grip with Edward Sapir and Benjamin Lee Whorf in the 1940s, who proposed that language determines thought, a concept known as linguistic determinism. They suggested that the vocabulary and structure of a language influence how its speakers think and perceive reality.
01:30Information Processing Approach
The information-processing theory of cognitive development centers on fundamental mental processes, including attention, memory, and problem-solving skills. Researchers in this field examine how cognitive abilities, such as working memory, evolve and influence children's overall development. Studies indicate that children with stronger working memory tend to excel in reading comprehension, math, and problem-solving compared to peers with less efficient memory skills. Low working memory is also...
01:21Health Literacy
Health literacy is an individual's or a community's capacity to comprehend, receive, read, and use relevant healthcare information and services. The World Health Organization (WHO, 2018) defines health literacy as the cognitive and social skills that determine the ability of individuals to gain access to, understand, and use information in ways that promote and maintain good health. As a result, the WHO helps individuals manage long-term health concerns, participate in preventative programs,...
01:29Intellectual Disability
Intellectual disability (ID) is a neurodevelopmental condition characterized by deficits in intellectual and adaptive functioning that manifest during the developmental period. This condition encompasses challenges in reasoning, memory, problem-solving, and learning, accompanied by impairments in everyday life skills, such as communication, self-care, and social interactions. Intellectual disability affects approximately 1% of the population in the United States, impacting an estimated 5...
01:30Oppositional Defiant Disorder
A persistent pattern of angry or irritable mood, defiant behavior, or vindictiveness characterizes Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD). Symptoms must occur over at least six months, involve interactions with individuals beyond siblings, and meet specific diagnostic criteria to be clinically significant. The disorder affects emotional regulation, social interactions, and behavior, often manifesting early in life and influencing long-term development and functioning.
Diagnostic Criteria and...
Diagnostic Criteria and...