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Internal Receptors

Internal Receptors

Many cellular signals are hydrophilic and therefore cannot pass through the plasma membrane. However, small or hydrophobic signaling molecules can cross the hydrophobic core of the plasma membrane and bind to internal, or intracellular, receptors that reside within the cell. Many mammalian steroid hormones use this mechanism of cell signaling, as does nitric oxide (NO) gas.

Receptor-mediated Endocytosis

Receptor-mediated Endocytosis

Enzyme-linked Receptors

Enzyme-linked Receptors

Enzyme-linked receptors are proteins that act as both receptor and enzyme, activating multiple intracellular signals. This is a large group of receptors that include the receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK) family. Many growth factors and hormones bind to and activate the RTKs.
Neurotrophin (NT) receptors are a family of RTKs, including trkA, trkB, and trkC (tropomyosin-related kinase) receptors. TrkA is specific for nerve growth factor (NGF), neurotrophin-6, and neurotrophin-7. TrkB binds...

G-protein Coupled Receptors

G-protein Coupled Receptors

G-protein coupled receptors are ligand binding receptors that indirectly affect changes in the cell. The actual receptor is a single polypeptide that transverses the cell membrane seven times creating intracellular and extracellular loops. The extracellular loops create a ligand specific pocket which binds to neurotransmitters or hormones. The intracellular loops holds onto the G-protein.

Types of Receptors: Internal Receptors

Types of Receptors: Internal Receptors

Many cellular signals are hydrophilic and cannot pass through the plasma membrane. However, small or hydrophobic signaling molecules can cross the hydrophobic core of the plasma membrane and bind intracellular receptors that reside within the cell cytoplasm or nucleus. Many mammalian steroid hormones and nitric oxide (NO) gas use this cell signaling mechanism.
Similar to membrane-bound receptors, the binding of a ligand to the intracellular receptor of causes a conformational change in the...

Types of Receptors: Cell Surface Receptors

Types of Receptors: Cell Surface Receptors

Cell-surface receptors, also known as transmembrane receptors, are cell surface, membrane-anchored (integral) proteins that bind to external ligand molecules. This type of receptor spans the plasma membrane and performs signal transduction, converting an extracellular signal into an intracellular signal. Ligands that interact with cell-surface receptors do not have to enter the cell that they affect. Cell-surface receptors are also called cell-specific proteins or markers because they are...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Feb 6, 2026

Detection of Neu1 Sialidase Activity in Regulating TOLL-like Receptor Activation

Detection of Neu1 Sialidase Activity in Regulating TOLL-like Receptor Activation

Published on: September 7, 2010

Toll Receptors.

Kiyoshi Takeda¹, Shizuo Akira¹

¹Osaka University and Japan Science and Technology Corporation, Osaka, Japan.

Current Protocols in Immunology

|August 30, 2018

Summary

Mammalian Toll receptors (TLR1-10) are key to innate immunity, recognizing microbes and initiating defense. This review covers their roles, signaling, and available detection antibodies for research.

Area of Science:

Immunology
Molecular Biology

Background:

Toll receptors are crucial pattern recognition receptors in the innate immune system.
Mammalian Toll receptors (TLRs) 1-10 play vital roles in host defense against pathogens.

Purpose of the Study:

To review the diverse functions of mammalian Toll receptors (TLR1-10).
To elucidate TLR-mediated signaling pathways in innate immunity.
To highlight available antibodies for specific TLR detection.

Main Methods:

Literature review of studies on mammalian Toll receptors.
Analysis of TLR signaling mechanisms.
Survey of commercially available TLR antibodies.

Main Results:

Identification of critical roles for TLRs in recognizing microbial components.

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Screening Bioactive Nanoparticles in Phagocytic Immune Cells for Inhibitors of Toll-like Receptor Signaling

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Isolation of Murine Peritoneal Macrophages to Carry Out Gene Expression Analysis Upon Toll-like Receptors Stimulation

Isolation of Murine Peritoneal Macrophages to Carry Out Gene Expression Analysis Upon Toll-like Receptors Stimulation

Published on: April 29, 2015

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Last Updated: Feb 6, 2026

Detection of Neu1 Sialidase Activity in Regulating TOLL-like Receptor Activation

Detection of Neu1 Sialidase Activity in Regulating TOLL-like Receptor Activation

Published on: September 7, 2010

Screening Bioactive Nanoparticles in Phagocytic Immune Cells for Inhibitors of Toll-like Receptor Signaling

Screening Bioactive Nanoparticles in Phagocytic Immune Cells for Inhibitors of Toll-like Receptor Signaling

Published on: July 26, 2017

Isolation of Murine Peritoneal Macrophages to Carry Out Gene Expression Analysis Upon Toll-like Receptors Stimulation

Isolation of Murine Peritoneal Macrophages to Carry Out Gene Expression Analysis Upon Toll-like Receptors Stimulation

Published on: April 29, 2015

Detailed description of signaling cascades activated by TLRs.

Compilation of antibodies suitable for detecting specific TLRs.

Conclusions:

Mammalian Toll receptors are essential for effective innate immune responses.
Understanding TLR signaling is key to developing new immunotherapies.
Availability of specific antibodies facilitates further research into TLR function.