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Atomic Structure

Atomic Structure

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Atomic Mass

Atoms — and the protons, neutrons, and electrons that compose them — are extremely small. For example, a carbon atom weighs less than 2 × 10−23 g. When describing the properties of tiny objects such as atoms, we use appropriately small units of measure, such as the atomic mass unit (amu). The amu was originally defined based on hydrogen, the lightest element, then later in terms of oxygen. Since 1961, it has been defined with regard to the most abundant isotope of carbon, atoms of which...

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An atomic orbital represents the three-dimensional regions in an atom where an electron has the highest probability to reside. The radial distribution function indicates the total probability of finding an electron within the thin shell at a distance r from the nucleus. The atomic orbitals have distinct shapes which are determined by l, the angular momentum quantum number. The orbitals are often drawn with a boundary surface, enclosing densest regions of the cloud.

Hybridization of Atomic Orbitals I

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The mathematical expression known as the wave function, ψ, contains information about each orbital and the wavelike properties of electrons in an isolated atom. When atoms are bound together in a molecule, the wave functions combine to produce new mathematical descriptions that have different shapes. This process of combining the wave functions for atomic orbitals is called hybridization and is mathematically accomplished by the linear combination of atomic orbitals. The new orbitals that...

The Energies of Atomic Orbitals

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In an atom, the negatively charged electrons are attracted to the positively charged nucleus. In a multielectron atom, electron-electron repulsions are also observed. The attractive and repulsive forces are dependent on the distance between the particles, as well as the sign and magnitude of the charges on the individual particles. When the charges on the particles are opposite, they attract each other. If both particles have the same charge, they repel each other.

The Atomic Theory of Matter

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The earliest recorded discussion of the basic structure of matter comes from ancient Greek philosophers. Leucippus and Democritus argued that all matter was composed of small, finite particles that they called atomos, meaning “indivisible.” Later, Aristotle and others came to the conclusion that matter consisted of various combinations of the four “elements” — fire, earth, air, and water — and could be infinitely divided. Interestingly, these philosophers...

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Updated: Jan 29, 2026

The Generation of Higher-order Laguerre-Gauss Optical Beams for High-precision Interferometry

The Generation of Higher-order Laguerre-Gauss Optical Beams for High-precision Interferometry

Published on: August 12, 2013

Multidimensional Atom Optics and Interferometry.

B Barrett^1,2, P Cheiney^1,2, B Battelier²

¹iXblue, 34 rue de la Croix de Fer, 78105 Saint-Germain-en-Laye, France.

Physical Review Letters

|February 16, 2019

Summary

This summary is machine-generated.

New multidimensional atom optics enable atom interferometers sensitive to full acceleration and rotation vectors. This breakthrough could revolutionize inertial navigation and gyroscopy with compact, high-precision sensors.

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Published on: August 12, 2013

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Area of Science:

Atomic physics
Quantum optics
Inertial sensing

Background:

Current inertial sensors face limitations in measuring full acceleration and rotation vectors.
Developing compact, high-precision, low-bias inertial sensors is crucial for advanced navigation and geodesy.

Purpose of the Study:

To introduce novel multidimensional atom optics for creating coherent superpositions of atomic wave packets.
To develop light-pulse atom interferometers capable of simultaneously measuring three components of acceleration and rotation.
To present a new atomic gyroscope design with enhanced immunity to parasitic accelerations and initial velocities.

Main Methods:

Utilizing multidimensional atom optics to generate multi-axis atomic wave packet superpositions.
Implementing light-pulse atom interferometry techniques for simultaneous inertial measurements.
Designing and analyzing a novel atomic gyroscope configuration.

Main Results:

Demonstrated the capability to create coherent atomic wave packet superpositions along three spatial dimensions.
Developed a framework for atom interferometers sensitive to the full acceleration and rotation vectors.
Proposed an atomic gyroscope insensitive to parasitic accelerations and initial velocities.

Conclusions:

The proposed multidimensional atom optics and resulting interferometers offer a pathway to full vector inertial sensing.
This technology has the potential to significantly advance inertial navigation, gravity gradiometry, and gyroscopy.
Compact, high-precision, low-bias inertial sensors based on atom optics could enable new applications in geodesy and fundamental physics.