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Humans engage in aggression when they seek to cause harm or pain to another person. Aggression takes two forms depending on one’s motives: hostile or instrumental. Hostile aggression is motivated by feelings of anger with intent to cause pain; a fight in a bar with a stranger is an example of hostile aggression. In contrast, instrumental aggression is motivated by achieving a goal and does not necessarily involve intent to cause pain (Berkowitz, 1993); a contract killer who murders for...
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In a population that is not at Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium, the frequency of alleles changes over time. Therefore, any deviations from the five conditions of Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium can alter the genetic variation of a given population. Conditions that change the genetic variability of a population include mutations, natural selection, non-random mating, gene flow, and genetic drift (small population size).
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Social traps are negative situations where people get caught in a direction or relationship that later proves to be unpleasant, with no easy way to back out of or avoid. The concept was orignally introduced by John Platt who applied psychology to Garrett Hardin's "Tragedy of the Commons", where in New England herd owners could let their cattle graze in the common ground. This situation seems like a good idea, but an individual could have an advantage. If they owned...
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Probiotics: If It Does Not Help It Does Not Do Any Harm. Really?

Aaron Lerner1,2, Yehuda Shoenfeld3, Torsten Matthias4

  • 1B. Rappaport School of Medicine, Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa 3200003, Israel. aaronlerner1948@gmail.com.

Microorganisms
|April 14, 2019
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Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

This review examines the potential risks and challenges associated with probiotic supplements, including research flaws and safety concerns. It emphasizes understanding the gut microbiome before probiotic use for substantiated health benefits.

Keywords:
probiotics, autoimmune disease, horizontal gene transfer, virulent factor, antibiotic-resistant genes, public health

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Area of Science:

  • Microbiology
  • Gastroenterology
  • Public Health

Background:

  • Probiotic consumption has surged, accompanied by numerous claims of health benefits.
  • Recent critical reviews question the efficacy and safety of many commercially available probiotics.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To critically evaluate the 'dark side' of probiotics, focusing on research limitations and safety.
  • To discuss regulatory inconsistencies and the need for a better understanding of the human microbiome.

Main Methods:

  • Review of existing literature, including systemic reviews, meta-analyses, and expert opinions.
  • Analysis of research design, reporting standards, transparency, and safety data.
  • Discussion of potential virulent factors and impact on gut microbiome equilibrium.

Main Results:

  • Identified issues include problematic research design, incomplete reporting, and lack of transparency.
  • Under-reported safety concerns and potential risks to the physiological microbiome equilibrium were highlighted.
  • Heterogeneous global regulatory guidelines present challenges.

Conclusions:

  • A deeper understanding of the human microbiome is crucial before probiotic administration.
  • Further research is needed to confirm probiotic efficacy, ensure safety, and substantiate health claims.
  • A shift towards evidence-based probiotic application is endorsed.