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Updated: Jan 14, 2026
Development and Evaluation of 3D-Printed Cardiovascular Phantoms for Interventional Planning and Training
Published on: January 18, 2021
Comparing the Effectiveness of Digital 3D PDF vs. 3D-Printed Heart Models as Learning Aids for Echocardiography in
Kunaal S Sarnaik1, Vishnu Ramasamy2, Kelli Qua3
1Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, 10900 Euclid Avenue, Cleveland, OH 44106 USA.
Background:
Reconciling echocardiographic images with heart anatomy in sonographic cross-sections is challenging. We compared use of 3D-printed heart models to 3D Portable Document Format (PDFs) heart models as learning aids in understanding echocardiography.
Methods:
3D heart models were printed in five echocardiographic cross-sections: parasternal long axis, parasternal base short axis, parasternal ventricular short axis, apical four-chamber, and bicaval. Models were also reproduced as 3D PDFs on handheld tablets. Medical students were assigned to use 3D PDFs (control) or 3D-printed models (experimental) while performing transthoracic echocardiograms on standardized patients. Students were given immediate (after one session) and delayed (after four sessions in two months) post-tests measuring satisfaction, learning quality, and echocardiographic knowledge. Analysis was conducted using two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) testing with a p-value threshold of 0.05, followed by post-hoc testing with adjustment for multiple comparisons when indicated.
Results:
One-hundred fifty students were surveyed. The experimental group reported greater satisfaction and learning quality relative to the control for the immediate and delayed periods (p < 0.01). Satisfaction and learning quality decreased in the control group from the immediate to the delayed period (p < 0.01); no difference was found in the experimental group. No difference in group echocardiographic knowledge scores was found with respect to the assigned 3D technology (p = 0.091). The control group's knowledge score increased from the immediate to the delayed period (p < 0.01); no difference was found for the experimental group (p = 0.238).
Conclusion:
3D PDF and 3D-printed heart models achieve similar efficacy in supplementing student learning of echocardiography. However, students may prefer 3D-printed heart models.
Supplementary Information:
The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s40670-025-02392-x.
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