Electrospun aligned nanofibers for tissue engineering

Tissue engineering aims to repair and regenerate damaged tissues using scaffolds that mimic the natural extracellular matrix (ECM). Aligned electrospun nanofibers are especially attractive because fiber orientation can regulate cell adhesion, migration, cytoskeletal organization, and lineage-specific differentiation while reproducing the anisotropic architecture of native tissues. This review examines aligned nanofibers from a design-to-function perspective. We discuss electrospinning principles, material selection, and major strategies for controlling fiber alignment, and then analyze how alignment influences regeneration of bone, neuronal, cardiac, and muscle tissues. We also discuss how bioactive cues, including peptides, growth factors, and conductive or drug-releasing components, can be integrated with aligned scaffolds to enhance performance. Representative preclinical studies are summarized, and the limited clinical translation of electrospun nanofiber platforms is critically assessed, with emphasis on the gap between random and aligned scaffolds. Finally, we outline the main barriers to broader adoption, including scale-up, reproducibility, pore architecture, and long-term in vivo validation, and discuss emerging directions for 3D aligned scaffolds.