Related Experiment Video

Updated: Aug 5, 2026

Examination of Oral Candida Infection in Primary Sjögren's Syndrome Patients
05:26

Examination of Oral Candida Infection in Primary Sjögren's Syndrome Patients

Published on: March 1, 2024

Prevalence and Risk Factors for Oropharyngeal, Esophageal, and Oral Candidiasis in HIV-Positive Individuals: A

Xue Ting Tan1, Siti Hamidah Binti Abdul Rahman2, Lee Lee Low3

  • 1Bacteriology Unit, Institute for Medical Research, National Institutes for Health, Ministry of Health Malaysia, Setia Alam, Selangor, Malaysia, moh.gov.my.

Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Infectious Diseases
|July 30, 2026
PubMed
Abstract

Insights

Mucosal candidiasis (MC) affects 39% of people with human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (HIV/AIDS). Male gender, low CD4 counts, and lack of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) are key risk factors for developing MC.

Area of Science:

  • Infectious Diseases
  • Immunology
  • Public Health

Background:

  • Mucosal candidiasis (MC), including oral, oropharyngeal, and esophageal forms, is prevalent in people living with human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (PLWHA).
  • These infections share common pathophysiological mechanisms despite varying infection sites.
  • Understanding MC prevalence and risk factors in PLWHA is crucial for effective clinical management.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To synthesize the global prevalence of MC in PLWHA.
  • To identify significant risk factors associated with MC development in this population.

Main Methods:

  • A systematic literature search was conducted across PubMed, Embase, Scopus, and Cochrane.
  • Prevalence data and adjusted odds ratios (ORs) for risk factors were extracted.
  • Pooled ORs were calculated for risk factors appearing in at least two studies.

Main Results:

  • Fifteen studies were included, revealing an overall MC prevalence of 39.0% in PLWHA.
  • Significant risk factors identified include male gender (pooled OR 1.53), CD4 cell count below 200 cells/µL (pooled OR 2.41), and lack of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) (pooled OR 1.76).
  • Statistical significance was confirmed for all identified risk factors (p < 0.008).

Conclusions:

  • The global prevalence of MC in PLWHA stands at 39%.
  • Male gender, low CD4 counts, and absence of HAART are confirmed significant risk factors for MC.
  • Prompt recognition and management of these risk factors are essential to reduce MC incidence in PLWHA.
Keywords:
esophageal candidiasisimmunocompromisedmucosal candidiasisoral candidiasisoropharyngeal candidiasisrisk factors

More Related Videos

Th17 Inflammation Model of Oropharyngeal Candidiasis in Immunodeficient Mice08:02

Th17 Inflammation Model of Oropharyngeal Candidiasis in Immunodeficient Mice

Published on: February 18, 2015

An Ex vivo Assay to Study Candida albicans Hyphal Morphogenesis in the Gastrointestinal Tract07:42

An Ex vivo Assay to Study Candida albicans Hyphal Morphogenesis in the Gastrointestinal Tract

Published on: July 1, 2020

Related Concept Videos

Candidiasis01:20

Candidiasis

Candidiasis is a fungal infection caused by opportunistic species of Candida. It can affect various anatomical sites, including the skin, oral cavity, nails, and genitourinary tract. Among its forms, vaginal candidiasis is the most common type of mucosal infection. It typically results from the overgrowth of Candida albicans in the vaginal mucosa. Under normal conditions, C. albicans exists as a commensal organism within the vaginal microbiota, regulated by the dominance of lactobacilli, which...
Amebiasis01:28

Amebiasis

Entamoeba histolytica, a protozoan parasite, is responsible for intestinal and extraintestinal amebiasis. Though a significant proportion of infections remain asymptomatic, approximately 50 million individuals annually are estimated to present with clinical disease, resulting in up to 100,000 deaths globally. The disease burden is disproportionately high in regions with lower socioeconomic status, such as parts of India, Africa, Mexico, and Latin America.Etiology and TransmissionThe infective...
Cryptococcal Meningitis01:27

Cryptococcal Meningitis

Cryptococcal meningitis is a life-threatening opportunistic infection predominantly associated with HIV/AIDS, accounting for over 100,000 deaths annually worldwide. However, it also affects individuals with other forms of immunosuppression, including those undergoing immunosuppressive therapy, organ transplant recipients, patients with innate immunodeficiencies, and individuals with hematological disorders. The infection is caused mainly by Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii,...
Factors Affecting the Risk of Infection01:26

Factors Affecting the Risk of Infection

The hosts' susceptibility to infection depends on several factors. The integrity of the skin and mucous membranes helps protect the body against microbial attacks. When the skin is altered, the chance of infection, limb loss, and even death increases.
The integrity and count of the white blood cells help the body resist pathogens and fight infection. When impaired, it reduces the body's resistance to pathogens. The acidic pH levels of the gastrointestinal, genitourinary tracts, and skin create...
The Oral Microbiota01:27

The Oral Microbiota

The oral microbiome includes a complex ecosystem comprising over 700 microbial species, identified through genomic sequencing and culture-based analyses to date. This community includes a core microbiome, found universally among individuals, and a variable component influenced by environmental factors such as diet, lifestyle, and host genetics. Site-specific conditions, including oxygen gradients, pH levels, and nutrient availability, determine the spatial distribution of these microorganisms...
Retrovirus Life Cycles01:10

Retrovirus Life Cycles

Retroviruses have a single-stranded RNA genome that undergoes a special form of replication. Once the retrovirus has entered the host cell, an enzyme called reverse transcriptase synthesizes double-stranded DNA from the retroviral RNA genome. This DNA copy of the genome is then integrated into the host’s genome inside the nucleus via an enzyme called integrase. Consequently, the retroviral genome is transcribed into RNA whenever the host’s genome is transcribed, allowing the retrovirus to...