Applications of the finite element method to thoracolumbar spinal research--past, present, and future

The finite element method has been used in spine biomechanics research for nearly a quarter of a century. Recent developments have made it possible to simulate a variety of clinical situations in an increasingly realistic manner, and have elevated the finite element method into a fully complementary partnership with experimental approaches for investigating clinical problems of the spine. The impact of several of these new developments on present and future spine biomechanics research is addressed in this update.