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High-retention sodium supercapacitors with sodium hexametaphosphate-controlled water-processable/non-flammable
Deepu Murukadas1,2, Dahyeon Park1,3, Minjae Kim1,3
1Organic Nanoelectronics Laboratory and KNU Institute for Nanophotonics Applications (KINPA), Department of Chemical Engineering, School of Chemical Engineering and Applied Chemistry, Kyungpook National University, Daegu, 41566, Republic of Korea.
Microsystems & Nanoengineering
|February 11, 2026
Summary
Environmentally friendly sodium solid-state electrolytes (SSEs) were developed using branched poly(ethylene imine) (bPEI), sodium hydroxide (NaOH), and sodium hexametaphosphate (SHMP). These PNaS SSEs show enhanced ion conductivity and stability for safe, inexpensive energy storage.
Area of Science:
- Materials Science
- Electrochemistry
- Polymer Science
Background:
- High-performance sodium-based solid-state electrolytes (SSEs) are essential for safe and cost-effective energy storage.
- Developing SSEs using sustainable and eco-friendly methods remains a significant challenge.
- Current SSEs often face limitations in ion conductivity, stability, or safety.
Purpose of the Study:
- To demonstrate novel, nonflammable sodium cation-transporting SSEs prepared via an environmentally friendly aqueous process.
- To investigate the effect of sodium hexametaphosphate (SHMP) on the morphology and ion transport properties of bPEI:NaOH SSEs.
- To evaluate the electrochemical performance and safety characteristics of the developed SSEs for energy storage applications.
Main Methods:
- Aqueous solutions of branched poly(ethylene imine) (bPEI), sodium hydroxide (NaOH), and varying concentrations of sodium hexametaphosphate (SHMP) were used to synthesize SSE films.
- Ion conductivity was measured using electrochemical impedance spectroscopy.
- Electrochemical performance was assessed by fabricating supercapacitors and conducting galvanostatic charging/discharging cycles.
- Flammability tests were performed to evaluate the safety of the SSE films.
Main Results:
- The bPEI:NaOH:SHMP (PNaS) SSEs achieved an ion conductivity of approximately 1 mS/cm at 20 mol% SHMP, a fivefold increase compared to bPEI:NaOH (PNa) SSEs (0.18 mS/cm).
- The enhanced conductivity is attributed to SHMP-induced morphology optimization facilitating efficient Na+ transport.
- The PNaS SSEs demonstrated stable operation in supercapacitors, retaining 99.68% capacitance after 2000 cycles and delivering an output voltage of 4.4 V.
- The PNaS films passed flammability tests, confirming their nonflammable nature.
Conclusions:
- SHMP plays a crucial role in optimizing the morphology of bPEI:NaOH SSEs, significantly enhancing ion conductivity.
- The developed PNaS SSEs offer a promising combination of high performance, stability, and safety for next-generation sodium-based energy storage devices.
- This work presents a viable and eco-friendly approach for fabricating advanced solid-state electrolytes from aqueous solutions.
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