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Related Concept Videos

SN2 Reaction: Kinetics02:14

SN2 Reaction: Kinetics

10.5K
Kinetic Studies and Significance
In a chemical reaction, a relationship exists between the concentration of reactants and the rate at which the reaction proceeds. The study to measure this relationship is known as the kinetics of a chemical reaction. Kinetic studies are used to deduce the rate law of a chemical reaction, which provides information about the species involved during the transition state of the rate-determining step. Thus, kinetic studies help to derive the mechanism of a...
10.5K
Precipitation Processes01:12

Precipitation Processes

6.5K
The experimental conditions in a gravimetric analysis should be optimized to maximize the particle size and purity of the obtained precipitate. Ideally, the concentration of the precipitating reagent should be low with effective stirring to maintain low relative supersaturation for the growth of large crystals. In homogeneous precipitation, the precipitant is slowly generated by a chemical reaction in the solution to avoid local reagent excesses. For example, urea decomposes gradually to...
6.5K
Recrystallization: Solid–Solution Equilibria01:10

Recrystallization: Solid–Solution Equilibria

4.2K
Recrystallization is a purification technique used to separate impurities from solid compounds. In this technique, no chemical reactions occur. Instead, it exploits physical properties only, specifically, the solubility differences between the desired compound and impurities, either at a single temperature or at different temperatures, and under other selected conditions. The solid-solution equilibrium (solubility equilibrium) of each component in the solution represents a binary phase...
4.2K
SN1 Reaction: Kinetics02:05

SN1 Reaction: Kinetics

9.9K
In an SN2 reaction, the reaction rate depends on both the type of nucleophile and the substrate. A hindered tertiary alkyl halide is practically inert to the SN2 mechanism despite using a strong nucleophile.
However, Sir Christopher Ingold and Edward D. Hughes, who studied the kinetics of various nucleophilic substitution reactions, noticed that a tertiary alkyl halide does undergo a nucleophilic substitution reaction in the presence of a weak nucleophile. While studying the substitution...
9.9K
Anionic Chain-Growth Polymerization: Mechanism01:04

Anionic Chain-Growth Polymerization: Mechanism

2.6K
The mechanism for anionic chain-growth polymerization involves initiation, propagation, and termination steps. In the initiation step, a nucleophilic anion, such as butyl lithium, initiates the polymerization process by attacking the π bond of the vinylic monomer. As a result, a carbanion, stabilized by the electron‐withdrawing group, is generated. The resulting carbanion acts as a Michael donor in the propagation step and attacks the second vinylic monomer, which acts as a Michael...
2.6K
Predicting Products: SN1 vs. SN202:27

Predicting Products: SN1 vs. SN2

17.6K
Nucleophilic substitution reactions of alkyl halides can proceed via an SN1 or an SN2 mechanism. While in SN2 reactions, the nucleophile attacks the substrate simultaneously as the leaving group departs, in SN1 reactions, the substrate first dissociates to give the carbocation intermediate. Various factors such as the structure of the substrate, the strength of the nucleophile, and the nature of the solvent promote one mechanism over the other.
With increased substitution on the alkyl halide,...
17.6K

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Updated: Mar 15, 2026

Optimizing the Growth of Endothiapepsin Crystals for Serial Crystallography Experiments
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Optimizing the Growth of Endothiapepsin Crystals for Serial Crystallography Experiments

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Kinetics of Stacking-Order Evolution during Heterogeneous Ice Formation.

Xudan Huang1,2, Zifeng Yuan3, Chon-Hei Lo3

  • 1Beijing National Laboratory for Condensed Matter Physics and Institute of Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China.

Physical Review Letters
|March 13, 2026
PubMed
Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

This study reveals the atomistic mechanisms of ice crystal growth during vapor deposition. We observed a unique transition from cubic to hexagonal ice, driven by surface and symmetry effects, offering new insights into material design.

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Area of Science:

  • Materials Science
  • Crystallography
  • Surface Science

Background:

  • The stacking order in close-packed polymorphic materials is not well understood.
  • Controlling crystal growth is crucial for designing advanced materials.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To elucidate the atomistic mechanisms governing ice crystal growth during vapor deposition.
  • To investigate the role of surface and symmetry in ice crystallization.

Main Methods:

  • In situ cryogenic transmission electron microscopy (cryo-TEM) for real-time observation.
  • Molecular dynamics (MD) simulations to support experimental findings.

Main Results:

  • Observed heterogeneous ice nucleation and growth with recrystallization and bifurcation.
  • Identified a coherent epitaxial transition from cubic ice to hexagonal ice via stacking-disordered layers.
  • Attributed crystallization preference to surface-constrained, symmetry-breaking effects minimizing free energy.

Conclusions:

  • Surface and symmetry critically influence ice crystallization.
  • Provides fundamental insights into crystal growth mechanisms.
  • Offers guiding principles for designing novel materials with controlled structures.